The innovation process can be divided into two main stages:

• - scientific research and development;
• - product life cycle.

All economic processes have a beginning, a movement forward and an end, that is, they take place in time. All goods and services go through a series of stages that make up their life cycle (just as people's needs and attitudes change as they move from one stage of life to another). The life cycle of an innovation is a certain period of time during which the innovation has active life force and brings profit or other benefits to the manufacturer or seller.

The concept of the innovation life cycle plays an important role in planning the production of innovations and in organizing the innovation process. Thus, managers of business entities must analyze economic activities, both from the perspective of the present time and from the point of view of the prospects for its development. The concept of the innovation life cycle justifies the need for systematic work on planning the release of innovations and their acquisition; is the basis for analysis and planning of innovation. When analyzing an innovation, it is possible to establish at what stage of the life cycle this innovation is located, what its immediate prospects are, when a sharp decline will begin and when it will end its existence.

Each type of innovation goes through its own life cycle, different from others. Features of the life cycle affect the total duration of the cycle, the duration of each stage within the cycle, the specifics of the development of the cycle itself, and the different number of stages. The types and number of life cycle stages are determined by the characteristics of a particular innovation. But for each innovation it is possible to determine the main stages that it goes through from the beginning of development to full implementation or termination of production.

The life cycle schemes of an innovative product and an innovative operation (procedure) are different.

A new product goes through the following stages during its life cycle:

• - development of a new product;
• - access to the market;
• -market development;
• -market stabilization;
• -decrease in the market;
• - market rise;
• - market decline.

On the stage new product development(product development, production preparation) the manufacturer organizes the innovation process. At this stage, capital investment occurs.

Stage entering the market(excretion). A new product begins to be introduced into the market and bring in money. The duration of this stage depends on the intensity of advertising, the level of inflation and the effectiveness of sales managers.

Stage market development(growth) is associated with an increase in the sales volume of a product in the market. Its duration shows the time during which a new product is actively sold and the market reaches a certain limit of saturation with this product.

Stage market stabilization(maturity) means that the market is already saturated with this product. Its sales volume has reached its limit and there will be no further growth in sales volume.

Stage market decline(decline). At this stage, there is a decrease in sales of the product, but as long as there is a demand for this product and there are all objective prerequisites for increasing the sales volume of the product.

Boom and bust stages may be absent because they appear when the market is diversifying.

Stage market rise is a continuation of the previous stage. If there is demand for the product, then the manufacturer begins to study the conditions of demand, change its personnel and pricing policies, apply various forms of material incentives for the sale of the product, both the seller (bonuses) and the buyer (prizes, discounts), and carry out additional activities.

All this allows the manufacturer or seller to increase the sales volume of the product for a certain period of time. But it can no longer increase to the previously reached limit. The market rise stage lasts for a fairly short time and moves into the final stage - the market decline stage.

On the stage market decline the sales volume of the product decreases sharply (until the product is fully sold or sales are completely stopped due to lack of demand).

The life cycle of a new operation is divided into four stages:

• -development of a new operation and its documentation;
• -implementation of the operation;
• -market stabilization;
• - market decline.

On the stage developing a new operation and formalizing it in the form of a document work is carried out on initiation, on searching for an idea, on developing an algorithm for a financial transaction, on creating a document. At the same stage, the manufacturer finances all costs of developing the operation.

Stage implementation of the operation is associated with its implementation within an economic entity or with its sale on the market. At this time, the mechanism for promoting and disseminating innovation is actively operating.

Stage market stabilization shows the market saturation with this operation and enters the stage market decline, when the sales volume of an operation begins to decrease sharply until sales cease completely.

There are three things to consider when considering the life cycle of a new operation.

• 1. The operation is implemented in the form of a complete document describing the entire procedure for performing this operation.
• 2. Operations are carried out in two directions:
  • - within the business entity that developed this operation;
  • - on the market, by selling the operation to other business entities.

The purpose of implementing an operation within a business entity is to obtain economic benefits in the form of reducing the time required to carry out work, saving money, etc. The purpose of selling an operation on the market to other business entities is to make a profit and improve one’s image.

3. Operations are not patented; they represent know-how. The manufacturer of the operation may lose the monopoly on the operation by not selling it on the market in time. In addition, employees of other business entities can themselves develop this operation, relying on individual elements of the operation taken or stolen (industrial espionage) from other business entities.

Thus, we can conclude that the life cycle of a new product is the duration of the period of its existence from the initial form (the birth of an idea) until the product goes out of use and is disposed of.

The business development of many enterprises is based on a clearly structured product life cycle management process. Shortcomings in the process of product life cycle management lead to negative consequences for the entire activity of the enterprise. The process of managing the life cycle of a new product should be focused primarily on customers, which allows the enterprise to build its business processes in such a way as to meet market requirements and consumer expectations.

In order to analyze the development prospects of an enterprise, plan the development or acquisition of innovations, as well as plan the quality of the innovation itself and analyze in the future information about what stage of the life cycle the innovation is at and what its prospects for the future are, it is necessary to design the life cycle of the innovation.

In economic scientific and reference literature, the concept of “design” is defined as the process of creating a prototype project, a prototype of a proposed or possible object, state. During the design process, technical and economic calculations can be performed, diagrams, graphs, explanatory notes, estimates, calculations and descriptions can be created. As a result, design, design and other technical documentation must be prepared, intended for construction and the creation of new types of products and processes.

Any project activity can be classified as innovative, creative activity, because it involves the transformation of reality and is built on the basis of appropriate technology that can be unified, mastered and optimized.

The international standard IS09000:2008 defines design as follows: “Design and development: a set of processes that translate requirements into specified characteristics or specifications for a product, process or system. The terms "design" and "development" are sometimes used interchangeably and sometimes to define different stages of the design and development process as a whole. Qualifying words may be used to identify the subject of design and development (for example, product design and development or process design and development).

Innovation life cycle design is a process that translates consumer requirements into established characteristics of innovative products, the result of which should be a specific plan containing a description of the stages of existence of an innovative product, the period of time during which this product will have active vitality and bring profit to the manufacturer or seller or other real benefit.

When projecting the life cycle of an innovation, it is necessary to plan the quality of the future innovative product. In this case, we will have to plan the expected quality, the quality of a product that does not yet exist in the material embodiment, associated with the expected need, existing only in our consciousness. Such planning is carried out at any stage of the innovation life cycle.

The significance of the project for the production of quality products is determined by many factors, the main of which are the following:

• - planning in the project the quality and competitiveness of innovative products that will be manufactured and supplied to the consumer;
• - timing of project development;
• - the ability to quickly prepare and deploy production of new competitive products in the required quantities on its basis;
• - clear execution of documents included in the project, ensuring a uniform understanding, fast and high-quality preparation and deployment of product production;
• - the project budget, the size of which often affects such project parameters as the timing of product launches to the market and the quality of innovative products.

The innovation life cycle plan (ILC) can be presented in the form of a table (Table 1).

The results of each stage need to be planned very specifically and in detail. They can be material, documentary or informational in nature. For example, for the design and product development stage, the result may be a set of technical documentation (design and technological) and a prototype, and for the market stabilization stage, the result may be information about market share and product profitability.

Table 1 - Innovation life cycle plan

Such a life cycle plan can be considered a quality plan for a specific innovative product, provided that the main indicators of effectiveness and efficiency reflect the quality requirements for the innovative product, or provided that a column containing these requirements is added to the table.

Designing the life cycle of innovative products allows enterprises in the future to analyze the compliance of the actual state of the product with the desired one and adjust the product life cycle in a timely manner. Such analysis should be carried out at each stage of the life cycle.

The modern market requires greater dynamism from the management system. The introduction of innovation is an indispensable condition for successful leadership. A company that chooses an innovative strategy, when priorities are aligned from innovation to quality and then to costs, has a greater chance of success in market conditions. New products and services give it a competitive advantage, but at the same time it must maintain a high level of quality, otherwise its advantages will be reduced to zero. Quality management should be carried out already during the marketing of new products, planning and design, and not just during the production process.

So, fulfilling the above conditions will ensure the quality of the innovative product and the competitive advantage of the enterprise bringing the innovative product to the market.

new combinations of factors of production

2. Economist S. Yu. Glazyev highlightsfivetechnological structures:

new textile technologies

steam energy technologies

electric power technologies

petrochemical technologies and energy of internal combustion engines

computer science and microelectronics technologies

3.Based on average industrial cycles, in accordance with the theory of N.D. Kondratieva lies:

change of the active part of capital (machinery equipment, vehicles, etc.)

4. The basis of long industrial cycles, in accordance with the theory of N.D. Kondratieva lies:

change of the passive part of capital (buildings, structures, communications, transmission devices, etc.)

5.Based on short industrial cycles, in accordance with the theory of N.D. Kondratieva lies:

market changes in relation to certain types of products

6. Scientific theory developed by N.D. Kondratiev, which found its direct application in innovation theory:

theory of long waves, or large cycles of business

7. Scientific theory developed by J. Schumpeter, which found its direct application in innovation theory

theory of long, medium and short business cycles

8. Duration of short industrial cycles, in accordance with the theory of N.D. Kondratiev:

3 - 3.5 years

9. Duration of long industrial cycles, in accordance with the theory of N.D. Kondratiev:

40 – 60 years

10. Duration of average industrial cycles, in accordance with the theory of N.D. Kondratiev:

11. The development of railway transport has become the core of the ### technological structure:

12. Alternative areas of innovation activity carried out in an integrated innovation management system:

innovations-products

innovations-processes

modification of products (including services)

13. An application for an emerging idea for something new that requires attracting the attention of participants in the innovation process to organize work at all stages and phases of the innovation cycle is...

innovative idea

14. The result of the practical implementation of an innovative idea is manifested in finished product of changes

15. Legal regulation of innovation activity in the innovative macroenvironment is a component of the organization...

innovative macroenvironment

16. The main practical goal of innovation management:

increasing the organization's innovative activity

17. A comprehensive characteristic of innovation activity, including the degree of intensity of the actions taken and their timeliness, as well as the ability to mobilize the organization’s potential:

Innovation activity

18. NOT elements of the innovation system

basic innovation strategies

19. NOT components of the innovative macroenvironment (distant environment):

resource support for the innovation process

20. NOT components of the innovative microenvironment (close environment):

organizational innovation culture

21. NOT components of an innovative internal environment:

innovation infrastructure

22. Strategies that ensure a gradual increase or stabilization of the organization’s innovative potential:

extensive development

personnel development

23. Strategies that provide the opportunity to dramatically increase the innovative potential of an organization:

diversification

integration development

intensive development

24. Strategies that provide the opportunity to overcome the accumulating technological gap of the organization:

innovative development

R&D development

25. Strategies that provide the opportunity to acquire a new quality of the organization’s innovative potential:

personnel development

integration development

26. The system of interaction between innovators, investors, producers of competitive products (services) and developed infrastructure is called innovation

27. The desired result of an organization's activities, achieved on the basis of implemented innovation in a limited time frame and with limited resources, is called innovation.

purpose of the organization

28. Quantitative and qualitative determination of the results of an organization’s development in the form of acquiring new qualities of its activities, products of labor and its condition, as a rule, is expressed in the form of innovative

activities (m.b.programs) of the organization

29. The resources and organizational mechanism expected or already mobilized to achieve an innovative goal or strategy form

innovative potential of the organization

30. Types of innovative potential are NOT distinguished in innovation management

functional

31. Project innovation potential is...

opportunities that can be realized within the framework of an innovative project

32. the tool with the help of which the innovative goal of an organization is structured is called

decomposition

33. The first stage of the innovation life cycle:

creation of innovation

34. Second stage of the innovation life cycle:

development (implementation) of innovation

35. Third stage of the life cycle:

commercialization of innovation (introduction to market)

36. The fourth stage of the innovation life cycle:

consumption of innovation (including updating of other products or technology)

37. Fifth stage of the innovation life cycle:

consumer purchase of innovation

38. The first stage of the product innovation life cycle:

R&D for product creation

39. The second stage of the product innovation life cycle:

technological preparation and organization of mass production of the product

40. The third stage of the product innovation life cycle:

large-scale product release

41. The fourth stage of the product innovation life cycle:

reduction in output volumes and discontinuation of product production

42. The first stage of the life cycle of technological innovation:

R&D to create technology

43. Educational function assigned to engineering centers as organizational forms of innovative activity:

training a new generation of engineers with the necessary level of qualifications and a broad scientific and technical outlook

44. Strategic areas of management in an organization are components:

external microenvironment

45. The second stage of the technological innovation life cycle:

industrial development of technology (2)

46. The third stage of the technological innovation life cycle:

dissemination and replication of technology

47. The fourth stage of the technological innovation life cycle:

purchase of innovation by the consumer (4)

48. Commercialization of innovations: bringing innovation to market

Commercialization of innovations– this is attracting investors to finance the implementation of an innovation (part of the innovation process) on the basis of participation in future profits if successful

Commercialization of innovations:

The process of bringing innovations to market commercially

49. The process of routinization of technology includes:

Rutinization- mastering innovation processes in stable, constantly functioning elements of objects.

50. Organizations created on the basis of large US universities with financial support from the government to stimulate the development of new technologies:

Engineering centers

51. The research function assigned to engineering centers as organizational forms of innovation activity:

study of the fundamental laws underlying the engineering design of fundamentally new engineering systems

52. The main purpose of operating a business incubator:

creating conditions that ensure an easy start, rapid development of SMEs, and high survival of enterprises.

53. Types of business incubators that are NOT organized in practice:

non-profit (non-profit) organizations

54. Management and implementation of a complex of innovative projects are organized in the form...

Innovation programs

55.Individual innovative projects in innovation programs are interconnected:

Functionally

56. Directions along which individual innovative projects in innovation programs must be coordinated

By deadlines, performers and resources

57. An organization that cannot become a subject of an innovation program: infrastructure organization

58. Leverage in innovation: the use of borrowed funds with a fixed interest rate to increase profits is one of the principles of the “leverage effect”

59. "Venture" is...

an investment company working exclusively with innovative enterprises and projects (startups).

A small company for solving innovative projects

60. "Venture company" is...

form of organization of risk enterprises testing or implementing an innovative idea

61. The discounting operation when determining the profitability of innovative projects consists in bringing future costs to current ones . To calculate the discount factor, the following data are used: 1) on the profitability of alternative projects; 2) about the level of risk premium; 3) about the level of inflation.

62. Risks related to the risks of legal support for an innovative project to create a joint venture for the extraction of rare earth metals from waste and scrap: underestimation of the specifics of the procedure for exporting rare earth metals abroad.

63. Risks related to the risks of a commercial proposal for an innovative project for the construction of toll highways:

1) errors in assessing the potential road capacity

2) significant excess of the estimated cost of work

3) failure of suppliers to fulfill their obligations to supply road surfaces of adequate quality

64. Ranking is...

ranking is a kind of rating. Rankings are carried out in the investment sector of the economy, insurance, real estate sector, etc. The rating method is based on ranking risk factors according to the degree of their influence on the results of innovation.

1)questionnaire

2)interview

3)test tests

66. Expert methods of risk analysis are mainly used if

the information available for analysis is not sufficiently relevant and representative.

67. Expert risk assessment methods:

1)brainstorming

2)questionnaire

5)interview

Expert assessment method- here comparative characteristics of the risk level are compiled, ratings are determined, and analytical expert reviews are prepared.

68. Risk-free innovation projects from the point of view of quantitative risk assessment

1) there is not a single factor that could negatively affect the progress and results of innovation

2) in the implementation of which the probability of risk situations occurring is almost equal to 0

3) the only possible result of the implementation of innovation

69. The most expected result of an innovation project, calculated taking into account its risks, is determined...

according to the mathematical expectation formula as the sum of the products of possible results and the probability of obtaining these results

70. The higher the volatility indicator, the higher the risk level of the project

71. The risk level indicator characterizes:

probability of a risk situation occurring

72. The risk price indicator characterizes:

the most expected result of an innovation, its usefulness

73. "Risk-free zone" is...

Risk-free zone - the area in which zero losses or negative losses (excess profits) are expected.

74. Risks that can be classified as commercial risks of an innovative project:

Scientific and technical risks, Project legal risks, Commercial proposal risks

75. Pure risks of an innovation project - risks, ...:

associated with objective circumstances independent of the decisions made

76. Speculative risks of an innovative project - risks, ...

associated with divergence of interests of the company and society

77. Static risks of an innovation project - risks

the occurrence or consequences of which are characterized by relatively constant values ​​of indicators

78. Dynamic risks of an innovative project - risks, ...

the occurrence or consequences of which are characterized by constantly changing values ​​of indicators

79. The investor's credit risk when implementing an innovative project is...

80. The credit risk of an innovator when implementing an innovative project is...

non-payment by the innovator of the principal debt and interest for the loan provided, as well as late payments under the loan agreement

81. The method of analogies in managing an innovative project is used to...

development of scenarios for the implementation of an innovative project

82. Elements NOT included in the innovation doctrine:

the subject of innovation activity as a factor of production undergoing changes

83. Refers to venture capital:

investments attracted in the form of issuing venture shares by venture companies and having potentially higher growth rates of market value compared to average market dynamics

84. Identification of risks of innovative projects consists in comparison of indicators of risk and usefulness of innovations.

85. The Monte Carlo method when analyzing the risks of an innovation project is used for:

1) identifying the most significant risks of an innovation project (+)

2) determining the impact of risk situations on the final result of the project

86. The operation of risk cumulation during the implementation of innovative projects consists of

concentration of the danger of the simultaneous occurrence of events entailing large payments of insurance compensation.

87. The risk measure indicator in innovation activity characterizes...

1) pessimistic assessment of the possible result of the implementation of innovation

2) mathematical expectation of losses as a result of a risk situation

88. The Lorenz curve is used to estimate the indicator...

income over different periods of time or between different population groups

Used to assess the indicator - risk level.

89. The concordance coefficient when conducting an examination of the risks of an innovative project shows:

the extent to which expert opinions are consistent with each other, that is, they belong to the same general population of assessments.

90. The standard deviation (Z coefficient) when assessing the risks of an innovative project is calculated based on...

statistics necessary for a qualified judgment about the sufficiency of the profitability index

91. Factor that determines the accuracy and reliability of the results when conducting an examination of the risks of an innovative project

qualifications of experts, independence of their judgments, as well as methodological support for the manifestation of expertise

92. The effect of financial leverage is... change in return on equity obtained through the use of borrowed funds

93. The freedom of maneuver of an organization when attracting borrowed funds depends on... differential and leverage

94. The effect of financial leverage is formed due to...

1) the excess of return on assets over the price of borrowing funds, increasing the return on equity

2)increasing return on equity

95. Mortgage debt is included in...

long-term liabilities

96. Own working capital is... the difference between current assets and current liabilities of an enterprise.

97. Miller-Orr Model is used to control...

company's cash

funds in the current account

98. The type of fund, the operating structure of which corresponds to the right of the investor to make a daily demand to the management company to repurchase the investment share:

Closed-end corporate fund

99. Permissible delay in submitting documents confirming payment of shares from the moment the registrar makes a credit entry on the personal account of the owner of investment shares:

no deferment provided

100. Investment share:

is a registered security and certifies the owner’s right to submit a demand to the management company for the redemption of the share

101. When the Altman Z-score is less than 1.8...

the perceived probability of bankruptcy is very high

102. Expenses do NOT affect cash flow:

Cash flow– the difference between the amounts of cash receipts and payments for a certain period of time. For example, Does not affect: disposal of fixed assets

103. Additional issue of shares:

increasing the authorized capital due to the issue (issue) of an additional number of shares.

104. To assess the market value of an organization, the following indicators are used:

Financial and economic, Actual, Standardized indicators

105. The efficiency of using equity capital is characterized by the following indicator:

return on equity

106. The correct definition of a full license to use industrial property:

the patent owner may assign, i.e. transfer the received patent under an agreement to any person, while losing the right to use it

107. Payment under an exclusive license agreement, received at a time, after the licensor has transferred technical documentation for the licensed object to the licensee:

lump sum payment

108. Payment under a non-exclusive license agreement, received at a time, after the license object reaches its designed capacity:

lump sum payment

109. Payments under a license agreement, received monthly in the form of a percentage of sales of products released under the license:

110. Payments under a license agreement, received monthly in the form of fixed deductions from a unit of sales of products released under an exclusive license:

fixed royalties

111. The maximum validity period of a patent for an invention, counting from the date of receipt of the application by the Patent Office, is...

112. The maximum validity period of a patent for an industrial design, counting from the date of receipt of the application by the Patent Office and possible extension, is...

Fifteen years

113. The maximum validity period of a patent for an industrial design, counting from the date of receipt of the application by the Patent Office (without taking into account the possibility of extension):

114. The maximum validity period for registration of an appellation of origin of goods, counting from the date of receipt of the application by the Patent Office (without taking into account the possibility of extension:

115. The maximum validity period for registration of an appellation of origin of goods, counting from the date of receipt of the application by the Patent Office and possible extension:

116. The maximum validity period of a registration certificate for a utility model, counting from the date of receipt of the application by the Patent Office (without taking into account the possibility of extension):

the publisher, whose name or designation is indicated on the work, in the absence of evidence to the contrary, is considered the representative of the author and, in this capacity, has the right to protect the rights of the author and ensure their implementation.

118. In the absence of evidence to the contrary, the author of the work is considered to be a person...

119. Subjects of related rights are:

performers, phonogram producers, broadcasting or cable broadcasting organizations

120. A trademark is protected by the following standards:

Law of the Russian Federation “On Trademarks, Service Marks and Appellations of Origin of Goods”

121. An invention is...

a technical solution that is relatively new for a specific organization

Invention is a new technical solution to a problem that raises the existing level of technology. In a narrow sense, an invention is a technical solution recognized as an invention.

122. A utility model is...

a new, industrially applicable technical solution that resembles an invention in its external features, but is less significant from the point of view of the state of the art

- constructive implementation of means of production and consumer goods, as well as their components.

123. An industrial design is...

this is an artistic and constructive solution to a product that determines its appearance, which, along with the technical level, determines the level of competitiveness of the product.

124. "Innovation Doctrine" - ...

a system of basic provisions developed by the leadership of the state (region, industry, large corporation) and determining the state policy in this direction.

125. The classification of risks of innovative projects is...

distribution of risk by categories, subtypes, groups and subgroups and other levels. It is precisely because of the variety of risks of innovative projects that the classification of risks is carried out not on an end-to-end basis, but on a block basis. Risks can be external, internal or mixed.

126. The essence of the analogy method in managing the risks of an innovative project:

represents the development of a risk management strategy for a specific innovation project based on an analysis of a database on the implementation of similar projects and similar conditions for their implementation (state of the external environment).

127. The decision tree method for analyzing the risks of an innovation project is based on the risk model:

A spatially oriented graph reflecting the sequence of decision-making and the conditions for their implementation, assessment of intermediate results taking into account their conditional probability

128. The Dupont formula is a factor model that expresses the dependence of profitability...

From turnover, liquidity and capital structure

129. Functions of the state that are implemented in the implementation of state innovation policy:

Creating favorable economic conditions for innovation, financing fundamental research and searching for research, organizing support for priority areas of development of science, engineering and technology

130 . When assessing the risk of an innovative project, the Z coefficient is the standard deviation...

that one will show swing range, which was inherent in profitability I in the studied past and which will need to be compared with the “margin of safety” in a reliable assessment of the project’s effectiveness, i.e. with the project profitability index

131. The financial and operational needs of the organization are...

the difference between funds immobilized in inventories and customer debt and the enterprise's debt to suppliers; - is the difference between the current assets and current liabilities of the enterprise

132. The external growth rate of an organization is the growth rate...

world economy, dynamics of world oil prices, global demand and export volumes of Russian hydrocarbons, processes of integration and Russia’s accession to the World Trade Organization, the scale of payments on external debt

133. Internal growth rate of an organization - growth rate

the intensity of economic reform, the pace of liberalization and price increases of natural monopolies, inflation dynamics, the rate of real strengthening of the ruble, the dynamics of gross domestic product, the scale of capital export, government spending

134. The correct definition of a simple (non-exclusive) license to use industrial property:

A simple license (non-exclusive) provides for the transfer to the licensee of the rights to use an object of intellectual property while preserving for the licensor the right to independently use the license and issue similar licenses to other interested parties

135. The correct definition of the formal (preliminary) examination of an application for a patent for an invention:

Formal (preliminary) examination consists of checking the availability of the necessary documents , compliance with legal requirements for them, the relationship of the declared proposal to the objects that are granted legal protection.

136. The correct definition of the examination of an application for a patent for an invention on the merits (patent examination):

Patent examination - (English patent examination) - examination conducted by the national patent office to verify compliance with the patentability requirements of the proposal contained in the patent application, establishing compliance with the requirements of unity of invention , utility model or industrial design, as well as to resolve a number of other issues related to patenting.

ideas, concepts, principles, methods, processes, systems, methods, solutions to technical, organizational or other problems, discoveries, facts, programming languages.

138. A license to use intellectual property is...

a special permit to carry out a specific type of activity subject to mandatory compliance with licensing requirements and conditions, issued by the licensing authority to a legal entity or individual entrepreneur

139. A patent is...

a document certifying state recognition of a technical solution as an invention and assigning to the person to whom it was issued (the patent holder) the exclusive right to this invention.

The life cycle of an innovation is a set of interrelated processes and stages of innovation creation. The life cycle of an innovation is defined as the period of time from the origin of an idea to the discontinuation of the product implemented. its basis for an innovative product.

Innovation in its life cycle goes through a number of stages, including:

* origin, accompanied by the implementation of the required volume of research and development work, the development and creation of a pilot batch of innovations;

* growth (industrial development with simultaneous release of the product to the market);

* maturity (stage of serial or mass production and increase in sales volume);

* market saturation (maximum production volume and maximum sales volume);

* decline (curtailment of production and withdrawal of the product from the market). From the standpoint of innovation activity, it is advisable to distinguish both the life cycles of production and the life cycles of circulation of an innovation.

2.Innovation process. Stages

At the first stage, innovation occurs as a result of a certain activity: an innovative idea (plan), discovery, invention, etc. turn into innovation, its “independent” existence and functioning begins. Then the innovation process enters a new phase, and only if potential consumers of the innovation are widely interested in its use, which predetermines the transition to a new stage. ^ The second stage can be called the stage of innovation formation (widespread introduction of innovation, gradually increasing application in various areas of human activity, conquest of a potential area of ​​effective use). This stage ends with the cessation of penetration of innovation into the field of its application and its relative stabilization. ^ The third stage of the innovation process is the process of its maturity. This is the stage of “dominance” of a certain innovation as a way to satisfy a specific need. This stage of an effective alternative ends with the beginning of replacing a given product, technique, technology, attitude with a new, more progressive one. ^ The fourth stage of the innovation press is characterized by a reduction in the scale of application of innovation, associated with replacement by new innovations that are at the stage of growth (formation).

3.Innovation infrastructure: technology parks, technopolises, business incubators, innovation and technology centers, special economic zones, development commercialization offices, state innovation corporations. Their characteristics.

incubators are designed to “hatch” new innovative enterprises, assist them at the earliest stages of their development by providing information, consulting services, renting premises and equipment, and other services.

TECHNOPARKS. A technology park means a research and production territorial complex, the main task of which is to create the most favorable environment for the development of small and medium-sized knowledge-intensive innovative client firms.

Thus, the concept of a technology park is quite close to the concept of an incubator in the field of innovation. Both of these elements of innovation infrastructure are complexes designed to promote the development of small innovative companies and create a favorable, supportive environment for their functioning. What is the difference between them? The range of client companies of technology parks, unlike incubators, is not limited only to newly created and innovative companies at the earliest stage of development. The services of technology parks are used by small and medium-sized innovative enterprises that are at various stages of commercial development of scientific knowledge, know-how and high technology. In other words, technology parks are not characterized by a strict policy of constant renewal and client rotation, typical of incubators in the field of innovation. It should also be noted here that if technology parks are intended to support only innovative activities, then incubators can also be created for so-called non-technological ones, i.e. traditional, industries and activities (for example, arts, agricultural activities).

TECHNOPOLISES. The development of the idea of ​​technology parks, the complication and enrichment of the environment, which favorably influences the efficiency of innovation, has led to the emergence in many countries of the most integrated and comprehensive element of innovation infrastructure - technopolises. It is not always easy to draw a clear line between a technopark and a technopolis, since these elements have much in common (for example, some experts believe that the development of the Sophia Antipolis park in France turned it into a technopolis). Therefore, it is important to highlight those characteristics of a technopolis that allow us to talk about it as a separate independent group of technopark structures. Technopolis, which is often also called a scientific city or science city, “city of brains,” is a large modern scientific and industrial complex, including a university or other universities, research institutes, as well as residential areas equipped with cultural and recreational infrastructure. The purpose of constructing technopolises is to concentrate scientific research in advanced and pioneering industries, to create a favorable environment for the development of new knowledge-intensive industries in these industries. As a rule, one of the criteria that a technopolis must satisfy is its location in picturesque areas, harmony with natural conditions and local traditions.

main feature ITC is that it is essentially a support structure for established small innovative enterprises that have already passed the most difficult stage of creation, formation and survival in the initial period of their activity, when up to 90% of small innovative firms perish. This is the conceptual difference between the ITC and the technology park. Therefore, ideally, technology parks should have been created at universities and fulfilled the task of incubating small firms, and ITCs were designed to ensure more stable connections between small businesses and industry, and therefore be created at enterprises or research and production complexes.

Special, free or special economic zone(abbreviated SEZ or SEZ) - a limited territory with a special legal status in relation to the rest of the territory and preferential economic conditions for national and/or foreign entrepreneurs. The main goal of creating such zones is to solve strategic problems of the development of the state as a whole or a separate territory: foreign trade, general economic, social, regional and scientific and technical problems. Free trade Area (FTA) - territory removed from the national customs territory. Operations for storing goods and their pre-sale preparation (packaging, labeling, quality control, etc.) are carried out inside.

Industrial production zone (PPZ) - part of the national customs territory within which the production of specific industrial products is established; At the same time, investors are provided with various benefits.

Technology-innovation zone (TVZ) - a territory outside the national customs territory, within which research, design, engineering bureaus and organizations are located. Examples of TVZ: technology parks, technopolises.

Tourist and recreational zone (TRZ) - the territory in which tourism and recreational activities are carried out - the creation, reconstruction, development of tourism and recreation infrastructure facilities, the development and provision of services in the field of tourism.

Service zone - a territory with preferential treatment for companies engaged in the provision of financial and non-financial services (export-import transactions, real estate transactions, transportation)

Complex zones. They are zones with preferential treatment for economic activity on the territory of a separate administrative region. These are free enterprise zones in Western Europe, Canada, formed in depressed areas, special economic zones in China, special regime territories in Argentina, Brazil.

Any processes occur in time, that is, they have a beginning, forward movement and an end. Just like processes, technologies and products go through similar stages, which together constitute a life cycle.

The life cycle of innovation is the period of time during which the creation, release and use of innovation occurs, allowing it to achieve its goals.

The life cycle consists of several stages, including the stages of origin, growth, maturity and death. After a certain time, the product becomes unattractive to consumers or unprofitable for producers. Therefore, it is necessary to constantly improve it, introduce changes, or replace it with another.

Innovation Lifecycle Concept

The concept of the innovation life cycle is an important consideration when planning implementation and organization.

Its meaning can be described as follows:

1. According to the concept, constant and thorough monitoring of the market and its individual segments is required, as well as forecasting and anticipating the situation in the future.
2. According to the concept, regular activities are required to plan production or purchase them.
3. The concept provides the basis for innovation planning and control processes. Control and analysis make it possible to understand the prospects and time of growth, the peak of its development and the end of its existence.

Stages of the innovation life cycle

The life cycle of an innovation project consists of the following stages:

1. The birth of innovation. The production, release and implementation of a new discovery or idea takes place, and the process of its independent functioning begins. This stage is complex and important, since the prospects and profitability of the innovation will depend on the importance, necessity and scope of the new. Large sums are spent on its development and release.
2. Growth of innovation. If a new product interests consumers and finds its users, it moves to a new stage - growth. The profit received from sales grows, reaching the payback period. The period lasts as long as the product is in high demand until market saturation occurs. Therefore, it is important to pay attention to product promotion and marketing activities.
3. Maturity. It is characterized by the fact that the market is oversaturated with the product, and sales growth stops due to reaching the limit. Sales are stable and provide the necessary profit. Sales growth is ensured either by a small flow of new customers or by an increase in the volume of purchased product by regular customers.
4. Market saturation. It is characterized by a decrease in sales volume and, accordingly, profit from products sold. Demand for the product decreases due to lack of competitiveness. However, at this stage, efforts can be directed towards its revival.
5. Dieback. The product becomes uncompetitive in the market and unattractive to consumers and is forced out of the market.

Example of innovation by stages

An example is the idea with Apple tablets:

1. The inception of the project was very successful. Device development, production and implementation were labor-intensive, but rewarding processes. People were eagerly awaiting the gadget, which was billed as a device that would allow access to the Internet anywhere and anytime.
2. The growth stage provided manufacturers with large profits and sales volume.
3. This product is currently at the maturity stage, providing the company with stable sales and profits. The company pays great attention to service maintenance, studying demand, modernizing technology, introducing additional services, and training staff.
4. The day is not far when tablets will be forced out of the market by more modernized products, due to... So far the product is in demand and pleases users.

Timing of life cycle stages

In order to determine the approximate duration of the stages of innovation life cycles, a thorough analysis must be carried out, including:

• Searching for information on the average duration of life cycles of products similar to the product under development for the entire period of time in order to determine the value of the life cycle of this type of product
• Determining how the life cycle period is distributed around existing trends, as this is a major component of predicting the future position and duration of each stage of a future innovation
• Development of a strategic plan for the development of an innovative invention according to the duration of the life cycle stages
• Forecasting the possible time period of each stage with the distribution of the company’s resources
• Identification of factors that influenced the duration of life cycle stages of past projects, and identification of the degree of possible influence on future innovations

Forecasting the duration of stages allows you to determine the maximum period of growth and development of a new product.

Opportunities to accelerate innovation

There are organizations that provide support and assistance for the development of innovative ideas. They develop special programs and events. Support consists of providing financial resources, material resources, and expert training.

These include:

1. Technoparks are industrial and scientific complexes that provide small innovative companies with favorable conditions necessary for the development of innovations. Technology parks help companies that are in their initial stages, as well as those who need help at various stages of acquiring knowledge and technology.
2. Incubators are organizations that provide assistance at the initial stage of development of innovative projects; they provide the necessary information and consulting services, premises or equipment. Incubators help in creating and developing a common concept and in organizing a project team.
3. Business accelerators, which literally mean accelerators. Their difference from incubators is that they provide assistance not at the initial stage, but already at the stage of formation of a new invention. They allow you to prepare a product for release, develop sales methods, and also introduce it to the market.

When developing a new product, it is important to remember that you should not drag out the process of planning for market introduction. Every day an innovative invention appears in the world, so a large amount of time spent on development may cause the project being developed to no longer be relevant. Therefore, the faster an innovation is introduced to the market, the greater the chances for success.

The actions of an enterprise at the stages of the life cycle of an innovative product largely depend on the type of innovation. Here is a classification of innovations by object , location and degree of novelty.

Depending depending on the type of object innovations are divided into:

· subject innovations are new material resources, raw materials, semi-finished products, components, products. Innovation in the form of a new product is decisive and is called product innovation . Such innovation aims to meet new needs or existing needs, but in a different way;

· process innovations are new services, production processes, methods of organizing production, organizational structures, management systems. In this class of innovations, innovation in the field of production processes is decisive; it is also called technological innovation. This innovation is aimed at improving product quality, increasing labor productivity and increasing production volumes.

From the point of view of innovation marketing, classification based on the principle of market novelty is of particular importance. Depending depending on the degree of novelty highlight innovations:

radical (basic) - for example, a new product based on a pioneer invention;

· improving – for example, a new product based on an invention that improves on a pioneer invention;

· modification (private) – for example, a new product based on an improvement proposal.

Radical innovations, especially those involving a new resource, are the most effective. The frequency of such innovations is one or two in a period of 40–50 years in a given field of science and technology. An example of radical innovation is the internal combustion engine , replacing the steam engine or cell phone replacing the landline . Increase K . P . D . internal combustion engine or creating another modification of a cell phone (additional set of functions, display color, design, etc.) – improving innovation . One of the most important types of product innovation is new technology, that is, means of production and objects of labor in which new human knowledge and skills are materialized. In turn, the use of new technology in production leads to process innovations within the enterprise - new technologies . In recent decades, due to the development of information technology, information innovation has become increasingly important. It is considered as a new type of resource.

Information innovation has two important properties:

• it is primary in relation to other innovations, since information is the basis of everything;

· it is inexhaustible, while other resources are limited.

Every innovation is distinguished by the level (degree) of novelty, which is the most important element in competition in the market. There are factors that determine the level of novelty:

Originality of the idea, patent;

The amount of allocations for the innovation process - the higher the allocations, the larger the process.

The coefficient of renewal of fixed assets - the higher the coefficient, the larger the innovation.

Marketing expenses.

Profit rate - at different stages of the product the profit rate is different. But here you still need to take into account a lot of profit.

The volume of output (sales). The new product has weak sales.

Figure 2 shows the period (T) until which the product can be considered new, based on costs

Fig.2. Costs of an innovative product depending on time

The duration of product novelty determines the duration of the product’s life cycle until a sufficient design capacity for the production of a new product (after some time, the new product becomes serial)

According to the degree of novelty, they distinguish: absolute novelty, relative novelty (relative to some feature: memory, performance, etc.), private - individual elements are new products, conditional - an extraordinary combination of previously known elements, market novelty - new for the consumer.

The concept of novelty can be viewed from the consumer's point of view and from the producer's point of view. A product may be new to the manufacturer, but not to the consumer.

Market novelty is characterized by the following properties:

· expanding the circle of potential consumers

· increase in the number of functions performed

· change in consumer needs.

You can also distinguish reactive (adaptive) and strategic innovations. Their differences are shown in Figures 3 and 4.

Rice. 3.Reactive (adaptive) innovationRice. 4Strategic Innovation

But not every innovation will be successful in the market. Company losses associated with the failure of new products often reach enormous proportions. For example, Ford's losses when trying to launch the Edsel model amounted to about $300 million. Xerox's innovation to enter the computer market ended in losses of $200 million. The failure of the major Iridium project of Motorola Corporation (Motorola) is estimated at 2 billion dollars. There are many such examples. However, firms continue to invest heavily in R&D and bringing new products and services to market. In 2000, total R&D costs were £345 million for British Telecom, $4,575 million for IBM, $3,800 million for Microsoft, and $3,800 million for Lucent Technologies. (“Lucent Technologies”) – $4,496 million. The Mannesmann company (“Mannesmann”) has registered 763 inventions and 157 trademarks. Nokia has 52 research centers, employs 17 thousand people in R&D, and annual R&D expenses account for 10% of total sales.

Such costs can be explained by the unique competitive advantage that companies receive as a result of the success of innovation - this is the advantage of novelty. Almost every second advertised product on the market is positioned as new. Why is this beneficial to manufacturers and attractive to consumers?

· Firstly, when entering the market with a new or improved product, the company receives temporary monopolist status, which allows it to accumulate excess profits and dictate its terms. A timely filled market window becomes a niche where supply and demand are completely balanced, and the consumer develops a commitment to the new brand. A competent marketing policy and protected know-how ensure the long-term profitability of the innovation.

· Secondly, the successful implementation of innovative projects gives the company an image of flexibility and innovation, which is an important component of the competitiveness of modern companies. Thus, new products stimulate demand for the firm's products as a whole, often prolonging the life cycle of products at the stage of maturity or even decline.

Life cycle is a time interval that includes several stages, each of which is distinguished by the special nature of the process of changes over time in demand (C), production volumes (P) and technology (T) (see Fig. 5 - a, b, c).

Rice. 5. Life cycles of demand (C), products (P) and technology (T):

a - stable technology; b - fruitful technology; c - changing technology

Depending on the type and type of innovation, as well as the final result, cycle models may differ in the number and composition of stages, stages and duration of the innovation process. In the innovative activities of organizations, there are several main innovative processes:

• development and production of new products or improvement of previously produced ones;
• development and use of new technologies to organize or optimize the production process;
• introduction of new forms of organization and management.

There are three concepts product life cycle: full life cycle (the time from the beginning of product development until the end of use of this product by the consumer), the life cycle in the production sector (the time from the start of the product entering the market until the moment it is discontinued), the life cycle of products in the consumer sector (release time and operation by the consumer). A change in the stages of the product life cycle is associated with a change in profit: before the start of the sales growth stage, the specific profit is negative, until the end of the growth stage it grows, and then rapidly drops to zero, after which the product is discontinued.

Technology– a more time-varying category than demand; Several technologies may change over the demand life cycle.

Depending on the level of technology variability, i.e. the frequency of replacement of one technology by another during the life cycle of demand, they are divided into three main types:

• stable technology remains unchanged over the demand life cycle; competition occurs at the level of prices and quality;
• fruitful technology remains unchanged for a long time, but at the same time new generations of products are being developed with better performance and a wider range of applications; the short life cycle of products does not always allow you to return the money spent; the newest product with the best performance captures the market, very intense competition forces prices to be reduced “at a loss”;
• changing technology characterized by the fact that during the demand life cycle, in addition to new products, successive new technologies appear; Changing technologies threaten obsolescence of all previous investments in R&D, production assets and personnel and often force previously leading firms to leave this business.

Nowadays, any industry with a stable technology can instantly transform into an industry with a changing technology due to the invasion of related technologies.

The main stages of the innovation life cycle, changes in profit and sales volumes by stage are presented in Figure 6.

Rice. 6. Main stages and characteristics of the innovation process

The innovation process in general means the sequence of transition from the idea of ​​a possible innovation to the creation, sale and diffusion of this innovation. The innovation process is divided into two main stages:

• creation of innovation - scientific and scientific-technical activities, including three components - fundamental research work (R&D), applied R&D and development work;
• commercialization of innovation - process involving production, marketing and sale of a product in the market

Fundamental research works. The emergence of an innovative idea and the possibility of using new scientific results occur at the stage of fundamental and exploratory research and applied research and development. The process of creating and mastering new technology begins with fundamental research work(FNIR), aimed at obtaining new scientific knowledge and identifying the most significant patterns. The goals are to discover new connections between phenomena, to understand the patterns of development of nature and society and the possibilities of their specific use.

Fundamental scientific research is divided into theoretical and exploratory. results theoretical research, carried out in academic institutions, manifest themselves in scientific discoveries, substantiation of new concepts and ideas, and the creation of new theories. TO search engines include research whose task is to discover new principles for creating ideas and technologies. Search FNIRs are carried out both in academic institutes and universities, and in large scientific and technical industrial organizations by highly qualified scientific personnel. The priority importance of fundamental science in the development of innovative processes is determined by the fact that it acts as a generator of ideas and opens paths to new areas of knowledge. The search work ends with justification and experimental testing of new methods of meeting social needs. FNIR is financed from state and industry budgets. Upon completion, documented and legally scientific results are achieved.

Applied research work. the main objective applied research work(PNIR) – determination of quantitative characteristics of new methods, approaches, non-standard existing design and technological solutions. They are most often conducted to explore the capabilities of products or technologies in specific conditions. For example, studying the capabilities of semiconductors at ultra-low temperatures or the behavior of an aircraft when breaking the sound barrier.

The executors of the research and development work are academic institutions, industry innovation departments (design institutes, laboratories, research sectors of universities, government and commercial scientific and technical centers – STC). Depending on the complexity of the innovation project (development and development of a new type of product), the tasks solved at the preliminary stage of innovation activity can be quite diverse. In particular, when developing and mastering large innovative projects, systemic integration of research results carried out at different times by different teams, debugging and refinement of both individual subsystems and technologies as a whole are carried out. R&D is financed from the state budget, at the expense of customers, innovation funds, budgets of technology parks, grants, etc. Funding is usually targeted. Development work, the creation of a prototype and the release of a pilot batch are associated with various risks. Their implementation is associated with a high probability of obtaining negative results and loss of funds invested in applied research. This is where risky investments take place. The result of R&D is documented and legally (patent-free) principles, technologies, justifications for the applicability of materials or structures in given conditions, market research methods, etc. R&D carried out on orders often ends technical opinion(TOR) for development work to create new facilities.

Development work. The stage of development and design work is associated with the specific development of a new type of product. It includes preliminary technical design, production of working design documentation, production and testing of prototypes. Under development work(ROD) refers to the application of the results of applied research to create (or modernize, improve) samples of new equipment, materials, and technologies. R&D is the final stage of scientific research, a kind of transition from laboratory conditions and experimental production to industrial production. Financing of R&D is carried out at the expense of enterprises’ own funds, borrowed funds (loans) and customer funds. Note that customers can be individuals, enterprises, industries, government agencies (city, regional and regional scale). The result of R&D is prototypes of new products with a full set of relevant documentation.

Commercialization of innovation. The practical implementation of the results of innovative activities is carried out at the market stage (commercialization stage). Industrial production stage includes two parallel stages: 1) direct production of materialized achievements of scientific and technical developments on a scale determined by consumer demands; 2) bringing new products to the consumer. Any product goes through the stages of introduction to the market, sales growth (market expansion), slowdown in growth and stabilization of sales volume (product maturity), slowdown in sales and withdrawal of the product from the market. The creation of innovations is followed by their use by the end consumer with the parallel provision of services, ensuring trouble-free operation, as well as the necessary elimination of obsolete production and the creation of new production in its place.

Note that the innovation process does not end with the so-called implementation, those. the first appearance on the market of a new product, service or bringing a new technology to its design capacity. This process is not interrupted even after implementation, because as it spreads (diffusion), the innovation is improved, becomes more effective, and acquires previously unknown consumer properties. This opens up new areas of application and markets for it, and therefore new consumers. Thus, the innovation process is aimed at creating products, technologies or services required by the market. Its focus, pace and goals depend on the socio-economic environment in which it operates and develops.

The development of diffuse processes at different levels of the emergence of an innovative environment is associated with the spread of innovations and innovations in the business cycles of scientific, technical, production and organizational and economic activities, including the sphere of service provision. Ultimately, diffuse processes make it possible for a new technological order to take a dominant position in social production. At the same time, a structural restructuring of the economy is taking place. When most technological chains for the production of products and the provision of services are updated, business cycles develop in a new direction under the influence of changes in the value system.

Industrial production is usually financed by the enterprise that puts the product into production. If necessary, loans and investments, equity capital are attracted.

To obtain a stable amount of income, a company must work on a product that belongs to three generations of technology: the outgoing ( obsolete ), dominant , emerging ( promising ), Each generation goes through a separate life cycle in its development. Let the company in the period of time from t 1 to t 3 is working on three generations of technology - A , IN , WITH , successively replacing each other (Fig. 7). At the stage of inception and beginning of growth in the output of product B (moment t 1) the costs of its production are still high, but the demand is still small, which leads to unprofitable production. At the same moment, the volume of production of product A (previous generation) is very large, and product C is not yet produced at all. At the stage of stabilization of generation B product output (moment t 2) its technology has been fully mastered, the demand is great. This is the period of maximum output and highest overall profitability for a given product. The output of product A has fallen and continues to fall. The development and development of a promising product C begins before the demand for product B falls, so that at the stage of decreasing demand for this product, the demand for product C is at the stage of growth. A stable value of the firm's total income is ensured by the distribution of efforts between successive products. Thus, the determining factor in the formation of a competitive strategy is that funds should be invested in a progressive product in advance, which requires reliable identification and forecasting of both trends in market demand (marketing research) and trends in scientific and technological progress.

Fig.7. Three generations of product

Obviously, the goal of innovation is to extend the life cycle of the company itself. Moreover, in contrast to the traditional marketing concept of life cycle management, which was dominant in the last century and was focused on extending the life cycle of a particular product, modern life cycle management practice has more flexible approaches in its arsenal.

Quite often, companies artificially remove profitable products from their assortment matrix, thus reducing their life cycle. The goal of such a strategy is either to stimulate the consumption of new products (innovative “cannibalism”), or to reposition the corporate brand. One way or another, managers who decide to introduce a new product into the assortment are often forced to consider the need not just to expand the assortment, but to substitute options.

Depending on the object of innovation, we can talk about three technologies for managing the life cycle:

· product modification;

· market modification;

· repositioning.

It is believed that the foundations of this theory were laid in 1928 by P&G (Procter and Gamble) when formulating the tasks of a product manager. Since the early 1940s. The company is actively commercializing its new brand “Pantene shampoo”. The product is positioned as a fundamental novelty due to the uniqueness of the medicinal formula, and its components are patented. The good price-quality ratio of the product allows it to quickly reach the growth stage, at which the company releases new modifications, deepening market segmentation. Shampoos are appearing for different hair types, with different flavors, and new economical packaging is being offered. During the same period, P&G released Pantene brand air conditioners, thus expanding its product line. The onset of a saturation period at the maturity stage of the Pantene shampoo product in the 1960s. leads to the need to search for new marketing technologies to increase interest in the product and maintain sales at a profitable level. First, the company enters new geographic markets, then new segments, positioning the brand as a product for both men and children. And in the early 1990s. releases a new product upgrade - “Pantene pro-vit”. The vitamin complex included in the shampoo and technologies that allow it to be actively absorbed give the company the right to position the shampoo as a “revolutionary innovation.” This innovation allowed P&G to take a leading position in sales in an industry with more than 1 thousand competitors.

The above situation is a classic example of managing the life cycle using product and marketing innovations. The essence of this process can be depicted using the following diagram (Fig. 8).

Thus, by combining product innovation, reaching new markets and product repositioning, the company is transforming the traditional life cycle curve into a scallop curve. The effectiveness of this process lies not only in extending the life of a product on the market and preventing the onset of a decline stage, but also in increasing sales volumes at each “crest” of innovation. At the same time, consumer loyalty to the overall corporate brand increases by giving it an image of innovation, which means that demand for other assortment groups of the manufacturer is stimulated.

Technology is of particular interest from the point of view of innovative marketing. repositioning product, which is relatively new and the most dynamically developing. In general terms, this process means a new positioning of an old product that has not undergone any changes. Obviously, this innovation is the least expensive, characterized by a low degree of risk, but requires marketers to have good knowledge of the market and the ability to predict consumer preferences.

There are four main repositioning methods:

· highlighting new areas of application;

· giving a new functional image;

· focusing on certain properties not previously highlighted.

The main factors influencing setting a price for a new product, are:

· level of production costs

degree of competition in the market

type of product or service

uniqueness of the product or service offered

· company image

· the ratio of supply and demand for similar goods or substitute goods on the market

elasticity of demand

· factors of the “external environment” (for example, government regulation of prices for certain types of goods)

Obviously, when determining the price, it would be most correct to take into account all the main factors, although the specific weight of each of them may be different. The price of a new product should be determined after careful analysis, taking into account customer perception, competitor prices, and production costs. In the end, whether the price is reasonable or not will be decided by your consumer, who “votes with money” by purchasing this or that product.

In innovative marketing, as a rule, the following types of pricing strategies are used:

• “cream skimming” strategy used when introducing a new product to the market, when fairly high prices are set for the product. This method works if the company has no competitors and consumers lack information about the product, as well as the need to quickly make a profit. A high-class performer of this “cream skimming” method is the Du Pont company (all women are familiar with its inventions - tights with lycra, Teflon coatings for dishes, cellophane, etc.). So, when presenting another new product to the consumer, the company usually sets the highest possible price for it, designed for buyers with high incomes. When sales stabilize, Du Pont lowers the price to attract the next segment of buyers who are happy with the new price. Thus, the company skims the maximum possible layer of financial cream from various market segments.
• market penetration strategy when relatively low prices are set for a new product - if there are a large number of competitors.
• A prestige pricing strategy used to present new products in terms of quality and prestige, assuming that to consumers, a high price means a high quality product. This strategy is usually used by already well-known companies.
• a strategy based on consumer opinion in which the price is set at the level that the consumer is willing to pay for the product.

Also, when determining the selling price of innovative products on the market, it is necessary to take into account the following pricing factors:

• level of innovation radicality. If the product is completely new in a given market, then the manufacturer becomes a monopolist for some time and has the opportunity to set high prices;
• the type of market for the sale of products, which is largely determined by the type of product, can be an oligopoly, a monopoly, but mainly refers to the market of monopolistic competition;
• risk level of the buyer and seller. If the innovation risk is borne by the buyer, then the manufacturing company is forced to reduce the price. If the innovative risk is borne by the manufacturer, then he increases the price by introducing an additional fee for the risk;
• company strategy. For example, if a firm pursues an active offensive innovation strategy, then it seeks to set a price that provides the largest amount of profit. If it adheres to a defensive strategy, it can reduce the price in order to prevent competitors from entering this market sector;
• the ratio of supply and demand levels for an innovative product;
• income level of buyers of innovative products;
• changes in prices for additional goods;
• the level of costs for production, sales, and operation of products;
• level of planned profitability;
• government regulators;
• specific terms of the transaction between the manufacturer and the buyer of innovative products.

For innovative scientific and technical products, negotiated prices are mainly used, the conditions for determining and the amounts of which are indicated in business agreements, contracts, agreements, state or municipal orders.

The sales strategy for new products must determine the best combination of working with end consumers, retailers, sales agents and wholesalers. Therefore, one of the key issues of sales is the choice of the optimal path along which the product moves from manufacturer to consumer or sales channel (distribution).

The composition and structure of the life cycles of new equipment and technology are closely related to the parameters of production development. So, for example, at the first stage of the life cycle of new equipment and technology, labor productivity is low, production costs decrease slowly, enterprise profits slowly increase, or economic profits are even negative. During a period of rapid growth in product output, production costs are noticeably reduced and initial costs are recouped.

Frequent changes in equipment and technology create great complexity and instability in production. During the period of transition to new equipment and the development of new technological processes, the efficiency indicators of all departments of the enterprise decrease. That is why innovations in the field of technological processes and tools must be accompanied by new forms of organization and management.

The life-cycle concept of innovation plays a very important role in determining both the maximum output, sales and profits, and the life cycle of a particular innovation.

Analysis of the life cycles of new equipment and technology is carried out in the following sequence, including:

1) determining the total duration of the life cycles of products of a given family, generation over the entire history, in order to establish a stable value of the cycle of a given type of equipment or technological process, including by stages;

2) determining the distributions of the durations of life cycles and their stages around the central tendency, since this is the basis for forecasting the duration of life cycles of a future innovation;

3) development of a basis for strategy and tactics for production growth in accordance with the duration of the life cycle stages of new equipment and technology;

4) probability distribution of the duration of the cycles of future samples and, in proportion to it, resources in the time of the next cycle;

5) a thorough analysis of the factors influencing the duration of past cycles, and extrapolation of the results to predict their influence on the life cycles of future products;

6) formalization of methods for collecting initial data and the use of econometric calculation models.

The methodology for analyzing the duration of life cycles allows us to give an answer about the dynamics of technical and economic indicators of production:

• Firstly, this makes it possible to determine the period of production growth to the maximum, which is equivalent to the best trends in the leading indicators of economic efficiency: levelized costs, production costs, labor productivity, profitability.
• Secondly, it is necessary to establish the dependence of output growth on the extremum of technical and economic indicators and on sales volume, because they, as a rule, do not coincide.
• Thirdly, it is necessary to analyze the trends in changes in technical and economic indicators when the volume of output is doubled, to give an answer: is there proportionality, inertia, a lag effect, etc.

1. PROMOTING INNOVATION

Jean-Jacques Lambin understands marketing communication as “a set of signals emanating from a company to various audiences.” According to J. Burnet and S. Moriarty, marketing communications is the process of transmitting information about a product to the target audience. In order to ensure effective coordination of supply and demand, information flows must circulate between participants in the exchange process, mainly emanating from the company and aimed at bringing to the attention of the market the position that the brand or company claims.

Main goals of marketing communications:

· informing potential consumers about a product, service, etc.;

· formation of preference for a product, trademark, development of a positive image of the company;

· acceleration of purchases by the consumer.

To achieve the above goals, such basic marketing communications tools as advertising, sales promotion, public relations (PR), and personal selling are used.

· Advertising – the term comes from the Latin word reklame - “to shout loudly” or “to notify” (in Ancient Greece and Rome, announcements were loudly shouted or read out in squares and other crowded places). Federal Law of July 18, 1995 No. 108-FZ “On Advertising” gives the following definition of advertising: “ Advertising – information distributed in any form, by any means, about an individual or legal entity, goods, ideas and undertakings (advertising information), which is intended for an indefinite number of persons and is intended to create or maintain interest in this individual, legal entity, goods, ideas and undertakings and promote the sale of goods, ideas, and initiatives. The American Marketing Association defines advertising as any form of non-personal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods or services paid for by an identified principal.

• Personal selling is the verbal presentation of a product during a conversation with one or more potential buyers for the purpose of selling the product or services.
• Sales promotion - short-term activities aimed at the consumer, reseller and sales employee of the company, used to quickly increase sales.

The Institute of Public Relations (IPR) gives the following definition:

Public Relations (PR) is a planned, ongoing effort aimed at creating and maintaining goodwill and understanding between an organization and its public.

When choosing means to achieve marketing communications goals, it is useful to use the concept of the product life cycle. In Fig. Figure 9 shows how product lifespan can be used to plan marketing and communications strategies and to align them logically.

Rice. 9 Using the product life cycle for promotion strategy

Product life expectancy can also be used to reconcile three other concepts used in marketing planning, namely:

Diffusion of innovation curve (Rogers, 1963), indicating the rate at which potential buyers adopt new ideas;

Ansoff's growth matrices (Ansoff, 1957), which propose alternative strategies based on existing and new products and markets;

The Boston Consulting Group portfolio matrix, which allows you to distinguish company products by market shares and growth dynamics.

Each of these concepts can be analyzed using the four stages of product life, as shown in Table 1. 1.

Table 1. Some marketing concepts

Stage 1 is represented by the options of introduction (product life expectancy), innovation (diffusion), product development (Ansoff) in markets with high growth dynamics and “problem children” (Boston group). Common characteristics include:

New products;

Low sales;

Small market share;

Specific types of consumers ready to buy new products.

Stage 1 communication typically involves increasing consumer awareness at a reasonable cost while also trying to persuade “innovators” to try the new product. To gain additional market coverage and convince consumers to try the product for the first time, public relations or publicity techniques are used. At this stage, mass advertising is usually less effective, since there are still relatively few consumers, and therefore such advertising becomes useless, i.e. the costs for it turn out to be in vain. However, a careful distinction must be made between marketing situations involving consumers and industrial buyers. In consumer marketing situations, the use of mass advertising to introduce new consumer products to a mass target audience is quite possible.

Stage 2 is characterized by:

Growth in sales and profits;

Wider use of the product;

Market development;

Increasing market share;

Increased competitive rivalry.

Stage 2 communications typically involve building and building brand preference among both industry consumers and users. Advertising is used to encourage a wider audience to try the product. Personal selling continues to be important. In general, the advertising budget is increasing, including in order to counter the actions of competitors.

Stage 3 is characterized by:

Market maturity and slowing sales;

Conversion of the majority of consumers into those who adapt to the product, albeit belatedly;

Attempts to penetrate the market more deeply and gain a higher market share.

Stage 3 communications typically require significant advertising expenditures, although not as much as Stage 2. More money is spent on personalized forms of incentives not only for dealers but also for end users. At this stage, attempts are made to expand the market by either increasing the frequency of use of the product or attracting new consumers.

Stage 4 is characterized by:

Declining sales and profits;

Market rationalization through mergers and acquisitions;

The fact that it may be necessary to remove the product from the list of offers;

Because in some cases there may be an expansion in the range of use of products.

Stage 4 communications are often about maintaining brand equity where possible. Costs for general promotion campaigns are reduced, and those funds that are allocated are mainly spent on personalized sales promotion campaigns. Due to this, it is quite possible to retain some loyal consumers by relying on the “traditional” or “classic” image of the product.

In promoting innovations as products at the implementation stage, the most significant means are public relations and personal selling.

One of the important tasks of PR specialists is the formation of long-term, trusting relationships with the media. To maintain interest in the company from journalists, PR specialists must follow the following rules.

· Form an information flow.

· Know how the media works

The time of delivery of materials to the issue, the beginning of editing the latest news, the timing of the preparation of publications and television stories, the format of radio broadcasts, the features of the perception of information on a newspaper page, clothing on the screen, the timbre and speed of speech on the radio - everything matters in the preparation and placement of material.

· Meet the journalists

Find out who specializes in “your topics” and study their work and professional style. This will allow you to send to the editor what they want to receive from you.

· Create informational occasions

Any news needs to be carefully worked on to make it interesting for journalists.

· Create “special events”

Something new and interesting for journalists does not always happen in the company, but in order to constantly maintain their interest in the company and its products, PR specialists hold special events. These could be holidays, competitions, etc.

· Act as an expert

Journalists always need up-to-date, competent information. Any businessman who has a large amount of information about his activities has the opportunity to become an expert. Running specialized newspaper columns (television and radio programs) is a good way to constantly disseminate information about the company.

· Prepare events for journalists

A journalist appreciates when his work is noticed, rejoices when receiving awards, remembers a kind attitude, loves to participate in interesting events, and is pleased when he is invited as a private person.

PR specialists can transmit information to journalists in the following formats:

· A press release is one of the most common ways to convey information to the media. This is a short press briefing document containing an up-to-date message.

· Backgrounder– basic information about the company that is not news. The background can be the history of the creation and development of the company, the biography of the manager, etc.

· Question-answer sheet contains frequently asked questions and their answers.

· History - case successful use of the company's product. It is issued in the form of an article written on behalf of the journalist.

· Press conference. A press conference can be defined as a meeting of journalists with representatives of organizers (government institutions, socio-political organizations; commercial structures, the purpose of which is to provide the media with factual, problematic and commentary information about an event, phenomenon, project, etc.

To effectively influence innovative buyers, they use personal selling techniques. The peculiarity of personal selling as a type of promotion is an individual approach to each client, i.e. Each time the seller focuses on a specific situation, but there are general principles for conducting sales:

· The principle of positivity.

· The principle of adjustment and guidance.

· The principle of dissociation.

· The principle of non-directiveness.

• The principle of individualization.
• The principle of participation.