Features and significance of Roman literature

Roman literature is a new stage in the development of ancient literature.

Both ancient Greek and Roman literature were created and developed under the conditions of the ancient slave formation. Rome in the main outlines followed the same path of development as Ancient Greece; it is the path from the tribal community to the slave-owning city-state, and then to the formation of a huge empire. The uniformity of development also led to a certain commonality in the ideological life of Greece and Rome. Greek culture greatly influenced the Roman culture in the fields of religion, philosophy, art, and literature. In addition, literature in Rome began to develop much later than Greek - in the middle of the 3rd century BC. e., during that period of antiquity, which is a time of decline for Greece (the period of Hellenism). This sequence in time also made Roman literature ample use of the achievements of the antecedent Greek. The Romans borrowed from the Greeks many literary genres, various poetic forms, poetic dimensions, plots, and dramatic techniques. However, this circumstance did not deprive Roman literature of its originality and artistic value. The nature of Roman literature took shape and developed in connection with national characteristics and Roman cultural traditions, in a specific historical situation, under the peculiar conditions of social life of the Roman republic, and then the empire. When borrowed, Greek patterns were processed and assimilated the original Roman features.

Roman literature did not always and did not fully perceive the elements characteristic of the Greek genres being processed. A significant number of works of Roman literature, certain genres and many artistic devices arose among the Romans without any connection with Greek sources. A comprehensive analysis of the monuments of Roman literature has led many researchers to recognize the originality of the artistic creativity of the ancient Romans. A characteristic feature of Roman literature is its practical orientation, which is reflected in an increased interest in eloquence and historiography, in satirical poetry and epigram. Throughout the entire period of the existence of Roman literature, it is characterized by constant attention to moral problems and didactics.

Roman literature played an important role in the development of Western European literature. After all, the only source of acquaintance of the European West with ancient culture over a long period of time (up to the 17th century) was the surviving monuments of ancient Roman, and not ancient Greek literature. This situation is explained primarily by the fact that the culture of Western European countries is the direct successor of the late Roman culture; in addition, Latin was the official language of the Catholic Church, it was seriously studied and understood by all educated people of that time, while the Greek language was completely forgotten in the West until the Renaissance. Only from the Renaissance did the "secondary" mastery of the Greek language begin in connection with the monuments of ancient Greek literature being reopened for mankind. The direct influence of Roman literature on the literature of the Renaissance and classicism was much greater than the influence of Greek literature. This situation was also facilitated by the consonance of the aesthetic needs of Western European culture of the late Middle Ages with the aesthetics of the Roman cultural heritage.

Roman mythology and Roman literature

An acquaintance with ancient mythology, which permeates the texts of literary monuments of antiquity, is extremely important for understanding Roman literature. To a large extent, Roman literature used Greek mythology, perceived according to its needs. But Roman mythology, which has its own specificity associated with domestic cults (meaning the inhabitants of ancient Latium), as well as with the religious beliefs of neighboring Italic tribes (Umbres, Oscans, Sabines, etc.), influenced the ideological and artistic formation of the Roman literature.

The original Roman beliefs were much more primitive than the Greek ones: the Romans deified natural phenomena, human feelings and various objects. Each person had a patron spirit (genius), each house had its own goddess of the hearth - Vesta. In Roman religion and literature, as in other Italic cultures, survivals of totemism have been preserved - the belief in a kinship between a group of people and any species of animals, plants, object or phenomenon. So, different deities had animals dedicated to them: Juno - geese, Faun - wolves, Mars - wolves and bulls.

The Roman religion is similarly described in the article "The Gods of Rome". Here we will restrict ourselves only to a listing of its main characters, who are most strongly associated with Roman literature. One of the ancient Roman gods was Janus: at first he was revered as the god of light and sun, opening the heavenly gates for the coming day, he was also considered the deity of the door. Finally, he was recognized as the god of all principles. There were several temples in Rome dedicated to Janus. The most famous was on the forum. It is known that in peacetime the gates of this temple were closed, and when war was declared, they opened. Janus was also recognized as the god of time; celebration of the new year from the 1st century BC e. merged with the festival in honor of the god Janus, and January still retains its name in honor of this deity.

In the Roman Pantheon there were other deities of Italian origin: Jupiter, who was revered as the god of the sky, Mars and Quirinus, the patrons of Roman power. These deities were often identified and mixed, but Mars was recognized as the patron saint of war, and Quirin was sometimes called the "Mars of the world", or "Calm Mars".

The oldest and most frequently mentioned god in Roman literature was Saturn, who was originally revered by the Etruscans, but over time he gained widespread recognition on Italian soil. At the foot of Capitol Hill was the Sanctuary of Saturn. The Romans considered him the deity of crops. Saturn was credited with the introduction of agriculture and viticulture in Italy. With the name of this deity, Roman writers associate the idea of ​​a "golden age". In his honor, festivities were arranged - Saturnalia, when the slaves were considered free, and the masters served them. During the Saturnalia, unbridled fun reigned, public affairs were suspended, gifts were made.

A significant role in the Roman religion was played by the cult of the gods - the patrons of the hearth: Penates, Larov, Geniuses. The goddess Vesta was very popular, who was worshiped as the keeper of the city or hearth. In the center of Rome, a temple was dedicated to her, six vestals (priestesses of Vesta) were supposed to keep an eternal flame in the temple, the extinction of which, according to the Romans, threatened the state with great misfortune. The supervision of the cult of Vesta was carried out by the high priest.

There are also stories or references in Roman literature about other cults and gods of Italic and Etruscan origin. The Roman pantheon was not limited and was replenished all the time. However, mythology in Rome did not have the great importance that it did in Greece. It is quite natural that as the contact between Rome and Greece deepens, as the Greek culture penetrates Rome, the ideas of Greek mythology begin to take root in Rome. And along with the original primitive beliefs, cults of humanized gods appear in the plots of Roman literature. Greek gods and heroes are adapted on Roman soil, their cults are consecrated by Greek and Roman rites, temples are created for them, and they are much more fully represented in the monuments of Roman literature. However, it should be noted that the assimilation of Greek mythology in Rome is not a simple mechanical act, but a complex process of perception of the richest ideological and artistic material. The colossal aesthetic wealth, which has matured on the basis of understanding the phenomena of the world with the help of emotional and logical associations, is being radically reworked. Roman literature fills the images of Greek gods and heroes with new content, and if for most Greek writers of the archaic and classical era the names of Zeus, Athena and others are the names of real-life gods, and the truth contained in myth is sacred for them, then for many Roman writers ( such as Lucretius, Ovid, Seneca) Greek gods (with Roman names) appear, most likely, purely symbolically, as literary images, and the mythological legend is perceived by them as a beautiful fiction.

Roman poets turn to Greek mythological wealth for the implementation of their ideological and artistic design. Often in Roman literature little-known versions of myths are used, often fiction and fantasy of Roman authors change or supplement the legends that existed among the Greeks, sometimes mythological material loses its connection with religion (Horace, Ovid), less often it is used to express certain religious and philosophical views (Virgil). It is noteworthy that when the Greek cults were introduced, the Romans either retained their names for the Greek gods (for example, Apollo), or identified them with certain Roman deities, endowing the Greek god (or goddess) with the name of the deity with whose cult the perceived cult merged. So, the Greek Hephaestus merged in Roman literature with the god of fire Vulcan. Hera was identified with the original Italian goddess Juno, who was considered the genius-keeper of women, the Greek goddess of beauty Aphrodite - with Venus, the Latin goddess of fertility and vegetation, the patroness of marital fidelity.

Over time, the main Greek gods firmly rooted in Roman soil under the following names: Jupiter (Zeus), Juno (Hera), Neptune (Poseidon), Pluto (Hades), Ceres (Demeter), Vesta (Hestia), Minerva (Athena), Venus (Aphrodite), Cupid or Cupid (Eros), Volcano (Hephaestus), Mars (Ares), Apollo or Phoebus, Diana (Artemis), Mercury (Hermes), Proserpine (Persephone), Bacchus or Liber (Dionysus, Bacchus), Faun (identified with Pan, then with Satyr), Parks (Moira).

Jupiter, the supreme ruler of Olympus, "Father of Gods and Men," was revered by the Romans no less than Zeus by the Greeks. Roman literature saw in Jupiter a multipower ruler, full of the greatest wisdom and justice. In Rome itself, many temples were dedicated to him. The most magnificent was the Temple of Jupiter Capitoline (standing on the Capitol Hill). It housed the famous gold and ivory statue of Jupiter. The cult of the goddess Venus was also very popular, especially in the era of the early empire, since the Roman emperors of the Julian dynasty considered Aeneas, the son of the goddess Venus, their progenitor.

Along with the Greek cults in Rome, Greek mythology is intensively spreading, which Roman literature actively popularizes. For her, the myth turns out to be the most fertile material for the creation of literary masterpieces that have survived for many centuries and continue to have a strong aesthetic impact on readers even now. At the same time, in Roman literature, as noted above, it is not the purely religious side of mythological legends that comes to the fore, as it was in the archaic and classical periods of Greek literature, but the artistic and aesthetic interpretation of mythological images and legends in accordance with the author's intention.

Periodization of Roman literature

The most appropriate periodization of Roman literature seems to be a periodization focused on the main stages of the development of Roman society. This principle is currently generally recognized, although it allows a certain degree of conventionality in the distribution of material, since the processes of literary development, being organically linked with the history of society, have their own laws.

1) early Roman literature (the literature of the time of the expansion of Rome to the south of Italy and into the Mediterranean basin, the time of the growth of the slave-owning republic) - from the middle of the 3rd century. BC e. until the middle of the 2nd century. BC e. - see. on this topic articles: Roman comedy - palliata and togata, Plautus, Plautus - a summary of comedies.

2) Roman literature of the period of civil wars and the death of the republic - from the middle of the II century. BC e. until the 40s of the 1st century BC e.

3. Literature of the era of the formation of the Roman Empire and the principate of Augustus ("golden age", "age of Augustus" - from the 40s of the 1st century don. E. To 14 g. E.).

4. Literature of the era of the empire:

1) Roman literature of the 1st century and the beginning of the II century. n. e. ("silver Age");

2) late Roman literature - II-V centuries. n. e.

A liter of ancient Rome was strongly influenced by Greek culture, there was a point of view that the Romans did not create anything new.

There is a continuity of Roman literature from Greek, but it is adapted to a different state, mentality and society.

The distribution of works of Roman literature was wider than that of Greek.

Formation features:

The influence of Greek literature on the emerging literature of ancient Rome is the elinization of Roman culture

Greek language can be learned among Roman aristocrats

Includes the tradition of completing your education with a trip to ancient Greek centers

Study of Greek Philosophy, Greek Drama

Most of the Greek genres migrated to Roman literature

Borrowing is not blind imitation and copying, they chose what suited their mentality, political and cultural situation, and then transformed them.

The concept of "free translation" appears - it is a reworking of Greek samples.

The formation of Roman literature began to take shape when the Hellenistic era was in Greece

Greek mythological themes, sometimes also historical

Many images and myths are the basis of Roman literature

Mid 3rd c BC - cultural Greek expansion... Greece loses its freedom, Rome gets acquainted with Greek culture, Greek themes from the 3rd to 1st centuries BC dominated Roman literature.

In Rome, national themes are much less common than in Greece. Rome is more subjective (politics, historiography are filled with political moments).

With regard to borrowing, unnecessary moments of Greek culture were thrown into the dustbin of history. Example: the choir in Greek drama had an important sacred meaning, while among the Romans, drama was not associated with cults - therefore, the choir was withdrawn by them as unnecessary. The Romans had the opportunity to process Greek culture in several stages at once.

The peak of prosperity is the beginning of the 1st century. BC, then an empire begins to form in Rome. Roman satire is one of the original Roman genres.

Fierce confrontation between the Hellenophiles (fans of Greek literature) and authors who call for the creation of original Roman works.

Classic period- the golden age of Augustus, the beginning of the formation of the Roman Empire (1st century BC - 1st century AD).

Preservation degree- the influence of the same processes as in Greek literature. What was lost interest was not rewritten and therefore disappeared. Essays on political topics are no longer in common use, abbreviated versions (excerpts) of large volumes (essays in many chapters) are popular (they have come down to it), and the drama has suffered greatly. Abbreviation for encyclopedias and dictionaries, abbreviation for abbreviations. In 4 - 5 A.D. genres disappear (lyrics, drama, history). Legal treatises have survived. The author, who fell out of favor, sometimes destroyed the work himself.

Material- papyrus, this led to the loss of many works.

Periodization.

According to the principle of political history, when some important domestic or foreign political events serve as stages.

1) Literature of the early republic(3 - 2 centuries BC). Establishment of the social and political system of Rome in the form of an early republic. Struggle between patricians and plebeians, Rome conquers Italy.

The emergence of early Roman poets - Terentius, Plautus, Lines Dronnik. Formation of Roman business prose. The first historical works in the form of chronicles (Quintus Fabius Pictor). Oratory, political eloquence prevails (Apius Claudius, Mark Porcius Cato). The poor state of preservation of early Roman literature, apart from the comedies of Mark Plautus, has come down to us only in fragments.

The era of Greek classical literature and Homer are taken as the ideal. Reconstruction of Homer and classical theater (archaic and classical) began. Confrontation between the Hellenophiles and those who advocated the original Roman literature.

2) Literature of the late republic(130 - 30 BC) The era of civil wars, one of the bloodiest periods in Rome. Rome masters the literature of Greece of the Hellenistic period. Crisis, complete collapse of the republic. Elenophilic tendencies are intensifying.

The first Roman poet is Gaius Valyrius Catulus, the philosophical epic is Lucretius. The flourishing of political eloquence (Mark Thulius Cicero, whose name became a household name) Left several treatises on the theory of oratory, laid the foundation for the epistolary genre. Guy Julius Caesar - historical memoir. Historical monograph - Guy Solyusty. Historian Karenliy Nepod. Roman Satire - Gaius Lucilius. Varon is the first encyclopedist.

The preservation is better, many works have survived in their entirety, but poetry and political eloquence are poorly preserved (except for Cicero's speeches, only fragments).

3) The Golden Age of Roman Literature (Literature of the Age of Augustus)(30 BC - 14 AD). These are the dates of the reign of the first Roman emperor Augustus. A throwback to the Greek classics, the liter is closely related to politics. August is the savior of the state, the pessimistic tendencies in the liter are over. Was able to stop civil wars. He patronized the authors who created his image as the image of the savior and glorified him. The early Roman Empire was the era of the principate. There was absolutely nothing left of the republic, hopes for its restoration disappeared.

The themes of this period are closely related to literary processes.

The first Roman national epic is the glorification of Augustus. The flowering of poetry - Virgil, Horace, Ovid. Almost all works have been preserved from each. During their lifetime they were recognized as the best classical authors. Greek classics are imitated.

Timulus and Propertius is a Roman love elegy according to Roman rules, it is considered an original genre. Good preservation, many comments and biographies.

Interest in Historical Writings - Titus Livy

Vitruvius - a treatise on architecture

Political eloquence disappeared, it was replaced by a solemn one (sphazorium and controversy). The first public libraries, literary circles were created, polemics were conducted in them.

The end of the republic was marked by the loss of the role of drama. Efforts were thrown to revive it, but suffered a complete collapse. The Romans lost interest in serious drama.

4) silver Age(14 - 96 AD). The reign of the first two dynasties of Roman emperors (Julia-Claudia (beginning with Tiberius) and Flavia (ending with Domitian)).

The process of strengthening the institutions of the Roman Empire. Rome increased its territory, included provinces. The best authors are from the provinces.

The most important thing that happens during this period is that the starting point has changed: from the era of the Silver Age, imitation of the best examples (golden age) of Roman literature begins. The apogee of the struggle between innovators and epigones (neoclassicists). The first half of the century is the dominance of innovators (they appeared because they believed that Rome had already created everything better in literature in the age of Augustus, a belittled attitude towards their works). The second half of the century - the epigones - imitated the Roman classics, introduced a new word in literature.

Phaedrus is the only collection of Roman fables (he creatively reworked Aesop's fables). The Age of Epic Poetry - Mark Lucan. Poet of the Stations. Martial is a satyr. Lucian Esenika - tragedies that have come down to us in their entirety. Historical prose - Cornelius Tacet. The first Roman novel - Petronius (the novel "Satyricon"). Private works of an encyclopedic nature.

Innovators - Perseus, Statius, Seneca, Petronius. E - Quintillian, Martial, Valery Flaccus. Good preservation, detailed description of lit. furnishings, comments.

5) Liter of the era of the reign of the Antonine dynasty(2nd century AD). The best, greatest and most enlightened emperors. The highest flourishing of the empire, a series of the most intelligent and enlightened emperors. Juvenal - Roman scourging satire, Suetonius - historical biographies, Apogee - a novel, Pliny the Younger. Apuleius - Metamorphoses. Kliny Laval is an epistolary genre.

6) Late Empire (Dominat)(3-5 centuries AD). The era of the crisis of all institutions of the Roman Empire.

There are many names, but this is all secondary. Many imitators, compliments, commentaries, biographies, dictionaries, encyclopedias, lists. Avsonius and Claudian: the flowering of legal literature, commentaries of philologists. 4 c. - late Roman poet Avsonius, Claudian Nemesian. Prose - Amian Marcellin.

2. Roman mythology - its specificity, stages of formation, ritual character. The myth of the founding of Rome (according to Titus Livy and Plutarch)

Ancient Roman beliefs were distinguished by extreme primitiveness: individual objects and processes had their own deities, but the Romans often did not yet distract these "gods" from the sphere of their manifestation, they did not think of them as independent creatures, but as forces within the object or process, inseparably merged with them; tribal deities - "ancestors" were represented in the form of animals - a wolf, a woodpecker. Now, along with these primitive beliefs, cults of Greek humanized deities began to be introduced - in part through the Etruscans - and the ideas of Greek mythology began to penetrate into Rome.

Essential difference between Roman narrative folklore and Greek. Greek myth-making developed mainly in the form legends about "heroes"... “Heroes” were objects of cult veneration in Greek communities; they were thought of as people who really existed in the past, but in the view of the Greeks it was a special past, different from the simple historical past, with special people who stood closer to the gods and were often in kinship with them. The situation was different in Rome. The Roman religion, with its pale, almost unconnected divine figures and the absence of the cult of heroes, did not provide a fertile ground for the development of "heroic" legends of this type. Only a few figures, such as the mythical founder of Rome, the deified Romulus, show in this respect a resemblance to the Greek "heroes." The Romans revered "ancestors", but imagined them to be ordinary people. Roman legends are mainly concentrated around images that are attributed not to the mythological, but to the historical past, and Roman narrative folklore unfolds mainly in the form of a historical legend. This fundamental difference in folklore soil - mythological tradition in Greece, legendary and historical in Rome - will later affect Roman literature.

Religion has undergone significant Hellenization. The Romans had long been familiar with Greek mythology, thanks to Etruscan art and early cult borrowings. By the III century. anthropomorphic ideas about gods capture the entire area of ​​Roman religion, an equal sign is established between the figures of Greek Olympus and Roman deities. Temples and statues are erected to the Roman gods; in Rome, various ceremonies are organized according to the Greek model, with processions, choral hymns and stage performances.

Triads of Gods:

1) The most ancient: Jupiter (administrative power), Mars (military function), Quirin (household functions)

2) Capitoline (patrician): Jupiter, Juno, Minerva

3) Plebeian: Libera, Lieber, Circera.

Romulus and Remus:

Titus Livy:“But in these plans (the creation of the kingdom - Auth.) Hereditary evil intervened, the thirst for royal power ... The brothers (Romulus and Remus - Auth.) Were twins ... and now, so that the GODS ... BY BIRD SIGN indicated who to name the city, who to rule the new state, Romulus chose the Palatine as the place of observation, and Remus chose the Aventine. Remus, as it is reported, was the first to see the SIGN - six vultures - and the sign had already been announced when ROMULUS was presented with a double number of birds. Each of the brothers, a crowd of adherents proclaimed a king ... A squabble began, and MUTUAL ANXIETY LEADED TO BLOOD SPILLING; IN DUSK, REM HAS A FATAL BLOW. More common, however, is another story - as if Remus, in a mockery of his brother, JUMPED THROUGH NEW WALLS and Romulus killed him in anger, exclaiming: "So may anyone who jump over my walls perish."

Plutarch is more detailed.“When the brothers decided to build a city, they immediately quarreled over the choice of location. Romulus laid the foundation for "SQUARE", otherwise "FOUR-CORNER" Rome, and wanted to choose this place for the construction of the city, but Remus planned for this a fortified point on the Aventine, named after him Remonius, the present Ringarium. They agreed to settle their dispute by fortune-telling by the flight of birds and sat down separately. They say that Remus saw six kites, Romulus - twelve, according to others, Remus saw them really, Romulus lied: WHEN REM HAS COME, THEN ONLY TWELVE KERS OF ROMULUS WERE SHOWN ”. Then, for some reason, Plutarch embarks on a lengthy discussion about the kite bird, about its habits, etc. About half of the page, Plutarch "sings an ode" to the kite, praising this bird in every possible way. Then Plutarch returns to the quarrel between Romulus and Remus. “Upon learning of the deception, Rem became angry and when Romulus KOPAL ROV, with whom he wanted to surround the wall of the future city, began to laugh at his work, then interfere with it. Finally, HE JUMPED THROUGH THE MOUTH AND WAS KILLED ON THE PLACE, some say - by Romulus himself, others - by one of his comrades, Celer "

Early Roman Literature (Appius Claudius, Livy Andronicus, Gnei Nevi).

The period will fill up with little-studied monuments of Roman poetry - cult hymns (several quotes from the hymns of the priests of Saliyev have survived). Quotations from the hymns of the Abral brothers have been preserved

Folk songs - became the basis for ancient Greek poetry, are found in a processed form in drama. Less than Greece.

Song types:

Songs of slaves at work (picking grapes, weaving, spinning)

Ritual (better preserved than in Greece)

Types of ritual songs:

Nenii - lamentations, which contained not only the motive of grief for the deceased, but also his praise 9 was first performed by the chorus of mourners, then the term began to denote a mournful monotonous song).

The Fessenins are humorous ritual songs, similar in content to the Greek iambics. Performed in various types of cx work - harvest, during the harvest. Later - during the wedding

Drinking songs - performed to the accompaniment of a flute at rural festivals.

Triumphal songs - performed during the triumphs of the Roman generals (Nar, in honor of Gaius Julius Caesar).

The cult of heroes did not develop, there was a cult of ancestors. There were very few original myths. The main myth is the founding of Rome by Remulus.

In autumn, ritual games were popular - a primitive drama performed at agricultural festivals. Jokes are primitive and vulgar.

Small forms of didactic folklore, aphorisms, fables.

Up to 3 c. BC. there are the first documents written in archaic Latin - legal or historical monuments (laws of 12 tables).

From the 4th century. the first historical chronicles are known - anally. An - year from Latin. Contained external and internal political events. The style of business Roman prose is being developed. In court, in the Senate, oratory and rhetoric are developing.

Funeral praises were popular - a special type of speech at a funeral that extolled the deceased.

Until that time, it was not held in high esteem, existed only orally. Poets are fools and idlers.

Ser. 3-2 centuries BC. Rome conquers all of Italy, turning it into its own state. The first authors were Greek house slaves in the position of teachers or secretaries, who received the status of freedmen. Alterations or free translations. Greek theme has been the main one for several centuries.

Appius Claudius(3-4 centuries BC): A collection of the first sitencies (aphorisms) is attributed to him. Initiated the recording of Roman legislation - judicial forms and judicial laws. The first recorded speech is the beginning of the rhetoric: against the king of Pir. "Speech against the Feast." The first Roman collection of proverbs and sayings in Saturn verse. A collection of grammatical works related to linguistics, the reform of the Greek Latin language.

Poetry.

Almost all of the early Roman poets were of low social origin - they were not Roman citizens (there were either residents of Italy or freed slaves). They mostly freely remade samples of Greek literature. Or they created their own original works, but in imitation of the Greek masters.

Livy Andronicus(282-202 BC): his fate is typical of early Roman poets. A Greek from Achaea, a prisoner, became a house slave to a Roman senator (he was a teacher), later released by the master. When a slave is released, he receives part of the name of his former master (he has Livy).

Teacher of Latin and Greek (they studied, sorting out the literature, for this, the Odyssey translated into Latin was created). The Odyssey, since the more diplomatic + the sea voyage of Odysseus is more interesting for the Romans, resembled the sea voyage of Aeneas. This is an example of a free or literary translation. He also established the principles of free translation - he did not set the task of translating the original exactly, he needed Greek literature to fit the specifics of the mentality of the Romans. The first translation of European literature is called artistic or free, its tasks: it is clear to convey the content to the Romans; elements of a brief retelling of incomprehensible moments, comments on cults and rituals, complexities are simplified, incomprehensible images have changed, Greek gods have been replaced by Roman ones; not a hexameter, but Saturn's verse (half as long). Livian Dronic changed the names of the gods. Such a translation was considered an independent work in Roman literature. Almost all of the literature of the early republic is loosely translated from Greek samples. He is considered not a translator, but the author of the "Odyssey" by Livian Dronicus. He translated in Saturn verse, the rhythm changed. In 3-2 in BC it was the main reference book of an educated person, after such a success they pay attention to Greek drama. From 240 BC, the Romans began to use the converted Greek drama at their celebrations, after the first war with Carthage, on triumphs, he redid several productions on behalf of: the tragedy - Euripides, stories about the Trojan cycle, "Ajax", "Achilles" "Trojan horse" - the arias of the actors are preserved, but the chorus is not. Tragedies-koturnaty. Perceiving the tragedy, the Romans borrowed only the actual parts - in Rome, the drama is not associated with a cult, the choir was removed, the dialogue is preserved. "The tragedy of koturnata" - the name of the tragedy, remade from the Greek model.

A new comedy of characters - the most popular genre before mimes - was taken as an example of the ball comedy. "Palliative comedy" is the name of such a comedy. The action took place in Greece. Reception of contamination (connection): several works into one (not plagiarism, but talent). The history of the Roman theater begins with state orders: an order for a hymn from the chorus of girls at the temple of Juno for a holiday. Consequences: recognition of merit and official "recognition of Roman poetry." Thanks to him, the scribes get the right to unite in the collegium - meetings in a certain place (the temple of Minerva) and time. 207 BC - the pinnacle of his career, he was ordered a hymn in honor of Juno, which was to be performed by a choir of girls. This was the recognition from the state of his merits and the official recognition of all poetry, which became on a par with prose. The state gave the right to collect special colleges for actors, playwrights, and artists. They gathered at the temple of Minerva.

Gnei Nevy (270-200 BC): Younger contemporary of Livian. A native of Italy - Campania. Contemporary and participant in the First Punic War (the first war between Rome and Carthage). He left his military career and devoted himself to literature. He is credited with 6 tragedies-koturnat and 2 tragedies-pretext, 30 comedies polyat and 1 epic "Punic War". Reworked Euripides' comedies. The masks-characters of Greek literature were brought to Roman soil. One of the first authors who used the method of contamination - connection, touch - the creation of one Roman comedy on the remake of two Greek ones. Subsequently, this technique was used by almost all comic poets. He was not a great tragedian, but he also reworked the tragedies of Euripides about the Trojan mythological cycle. The creator of the pretext tragedy (the original Roman tragedy, on the original Roman plot. The action takes place in Rome. Typical scenes from early Roman history. Military-historical theme). Pretexture - a special type of Roman toga with a purple border, worn on special occasions "Romulus", "Casilius", were devoted to military subjects. This is either the Rome of the Tsarist era, or the recent past, linked by historical legends. Performed at triumphs. Pretexts were not particularly popular and were always inferior to koturnat. As a comedian, Nevy was very popular. He used the technique of contamination (combining plots of Greek comedies). The Romans preferred action comedy that developed rapidly and dynamically. The main work of his life, Gnei Nevi considered the "Punic War", which served as the beginning of the Roman national historical epic. It is based on real events from the recent past - the clash of Rome and Carthage, in which Gennius Nevius saw a catastrophe of world significance. The first part of the epic begins with the characters of the myths, the founding of Rome (starting with Aeneas fleeing from Troy), this has become traditional for the Roman epic. The first poet to describe in detail and consistently the myth of the founding of Rome. They all came from the founding of the city. The founding of Rome by Romulus - 2 books out of 7. The rest of the books are genuine historical events. A feature of the description of military events: partially imitates Homer, begins with an appeal to the muses, connecting the Greek gods, takes a "catalog of ships" (a list of warriors). The military action resembled military reports, short and to the point. Gnei Nevi wrote this epic already at the end of his life. The first Italian writer who devoted his entire life to creativity. He was the first Roman author to create a national epic in Latin and Saturn verse. Later it was split into 7 songs, books. Geni Nevy combined literary and social activities. Many of his works were of journalistic art. He often entered into polemics with the patrician family of the Scipions. Roman law forbade the creation of ponflets by non-Roman citizens, he broke the law. He said that he wanted to speak in fluent language. For him, theater is an arena for exposing modern vices. They say that it ended badly, that he was either sent to prison or executed.

Roman literature in its development used the richest experience of the Greeks. The Romans borrowed Greek literary genres, forms and plots, translated or imitated Greek authors.

At the end of the 3rd century BC. a whole galaxy of talented poets and playwrights came to the fore, who, taking the Greek epic poems, tragedies and comedies as a model, laid the foundation for Roman literature.

The most prominent representative of early Roman literature wasAnnius , modeled on the Homeric epic, the history of Rome under the nameAnnaly. Along with Nevi's Punic War, this is the first significant epic work based on Roman material.

The pinnacle of the Roman epic was the "Aeneid"Virgil , written in the 1st century BC, during the reign of Octavian Augustus. This was the era of "golden Latin", the classic period of Roman literature.

Unlike the Iliad and Odyssey, which were created as poems about the past,"Aeneid" - this is a poem about the future, which was an unprecedented experience for ancient literature. Virgil tells about the wanderings of the legendary Aeneas, whose descendants the Romans considered themselves to be, about Aeneas' love for the queen of Carthage Dido. By order of Jupiter, who destined Aeneas to become the ancestor of the founders of Rome, he leaves Dido.

With the help of the prophetess Sibyl, Aeneas descends into the kingdom of the dead, where he learns his fate and the fate of Rome. He sees the souls of Roman kings and heroes, including the greatest of them, Augustus.

Glorifying the great mission of Rome, the victories and greatness of Augustus "Aeneid" expressed the self-consciousness of the Roman people, becoming the most popular monument of Roman literature.

Virgil also owns"Bukoliki" , a collection of 10 eclogs about the lives of idealized shepherds, and"Georgiki" - a poem about the peaceful labor of peasants.

An unusually gifted poet became the founder of Roman lyricsCatull (first half of the 1st century BC). Among his poems, love lyrics are especially famous, which depict the story of the poet's love for the famous secular beauty Claudia. All shades of love feelings are reflected here - delight and joy, despair and anguish.

Far from the passionate passion of Catullus is the sublime and restrained museHoration who was a contemporary of Virgil. In his work, Roman poetry reached its climax. Horace's poetic fame was mainly"Odes" - four books with a wide variety of topics. Here are love poems, and odes on the theme of friendship, and everyday reasoning. Many odes are devoted to a political theme: praises to Augustus, the victorious Roman weapon.

Wrote Horace and satire, making fun of the vices of his contemporaries.

The most talented of the Roman lyricists was the younger contemporary of Virgil and Horace -Ovudy ... Already early poems -"Songs of love" - made his name famous. They contain not only the lyrical outpourings of an admiring or desperate soul, but also humor and irony.

Obviously parody works -"The Art of Love" and "Remedies for love" ... This is a kind of practical guide for lovers, presented with the grace and wit inherent in the poet. Octavian Augustus saw in The Art of Love a mockery of his marriage legislation, and Ovid was sent into exile, where he died in constant longing for Rome. In the link there were"Sorrowful Elegies" and "Messages from Pontus".

Two great poems became the crown of Ovid's creativity -"Metamorphoses" (Transformations) and "Fasts" , a poetic calendar of Roman holidays (not finished). "Metamorphoses" is a kind of poetic encyclopedia of ancient mythology. Ovid retold about 250 myths about the transformation of people into plants and animals, emphasizing the idea of ​​eternity and constant changeability of life.

The heightened interest of the Romans in everyday reality, in the "prose of life" contributed to the rapid developmentsatire. "Satire is entirely ours," the ancient Romans argued. Indeed, it was in Rome that satire reached its highest peak.

Two of its forms were distinguished here. One, exclusively poetic, was developed by poets. This is Lucilius, Horace, Juvenal. Another kind of satire was a mixture of prose and poetry ("Menippian satire"). Its brightest examples were two remarkable works of the era of Nero (middle of the 1st century AD). This is a famous novelPetronia "Satyricon" and an anonymous pamphlet"The Apotheosis of the Divine Claudius" , where the deification of the emperor Claudius is parodied, who, instead of becoming a god, turned into a pumpkin.

The satirical depiction of morals is the main content and epigramsMarcial , the greatest master of this genre in world literature, and the comedies of Plautus and Terence.

The unsurpassed Roman orator and political figure became the creator of classical Latin fiction.Cicero ... His speeches, revised for editions, letters to friends, treatises on rhetoric, philosophical works (a popular presentation of Greek philosophical theories that Cicero thought useful to his compatriots) were a valuable contribution to Roman culture.

The most prominent representatives of historical prose wereCato the Elder , Titus of Libya , Tacitus , who created works on the history of Rome. In the genre of historical biography he workedSuetonius , author of biographies of the first twelve Caesars.

The special literature highlights:

encyclopedic worksVarro , the greatest erudite, a recognized luminary in the field of scientific research, who wrote on a variety of topics, from agriculture to the history of Roman cults;

architectural treatiseVitruvia ;

encyclopedic "Natural history"Pliny Senior , including all areas of science of its time;

doctor's work Celsus , geographer Strabo , agricultural theoristColumella .

Although absolutely new philosophical systems were not created in Rome, he gave the world wonderfulphilosophers , who have reinterpreted the already known theories in a new way. An outstanding Roman thinker wasLucretius Car , author of the famous poem"On the nature of things." In it, the teachings of Epicurus received a brilliant poetic embodiment. The goal of Epicurus' teachings was to rid man of the fear of gods and death. The same aspiration permeates the poem of Lucretius, who sees the way to overcome fear in the knowledge of the truth about nature. He, one by one, studies the phenomena of nature, drawing a conclusion about the natural, without the intervention of the gods, the origin of the Universe, the Earth, all living things.

Lucretius Carus was not only a philosopher, but also a poet. His poem, set forth in a Latin hexameter, is a masterpiece of Roman poetry. Discussing the structure of matter, the movement of the origins, the origin of the world, the author unfolds a magnificent colorful picture with a description of dawns and thunderstorms, spring showers and shady groves. There has never been such a unity of philosophy and poetry as that of Lucretius in world literature.

Among the most significant Roman philosophers, there is alsoSeneca - a famous writer and politician, the closest adviser to the emperor Nero, who later fell out of favor and was executed by his order. Seneca wrote many philosophical writings on practical morality in the spirit of Roman Stoicism full of pathos of freedom from passions("Letters to Lucilius" ).

The representative of stoicism was also the "philosopher on the throne" - the emperor Marcus Aurelius.

From the 1st century A.D. representatives of the "provinces" are confidently included in Roman literature:

- brilliant Greek orator and philosopher from Asia MinorDio Chrysostom who preached a return to nature and simple life;

- wonderful Greek writerPlutarch , one of the most educated people of his time, whose world fame was brought by "Comparative Biographies" (biographies of famous Greek and Roman figures) and "Moral Works";

- originating from the Syrian city of Samosata, the largest Greek satirist and thinkerLucian , mocker and freethinker;

- speaker, philosopher and artistApuleius from Medavra (Africa) - the author of perhaps the most famous novel of antiquity "Metamorphoses" or "The Golden Donkey", which tells about the adventures of a young man turned into a donkey.

In the 2nd century, Greco-Roman culture has already become unified.

In the transition period from antiquity to the Middle Ages, the works of a Roman philosopher and politician who sympathized with Christianity were written,Boethius (treatises on logic, arithmetic, music, theological issues). The last work of Boethius was the treatise "Consolation of Philosophy", which entered the treasury of world literature.

stoicism - a philosophical movement based on faith in providence. Stoicism saw the highest goal of human life in virtue.

According to the tradition dating back to the Renaissance, Roman literature is usually divided into periods according to the stages of development of the literary Latin language, which distinguishes between "archaic" Latin, "classical" ("gold" and "silver") and "late". From this point of view, Roman literature is periodized as follows.

I. The most ancient period - before the appearance in Rome of literature in the Greek way (up to 240 BC).

II. Archaic period - before the beginning of the literary activity of Cicero (240 - 81 BC).

III. The Golden Age of Roman Literature:

a) the time of Cicero - the heyday of Roman prose (81 - 43 BC),

b) the time of Augustus - the heyday of Roman poetry (43 BC - 14 AD).

IV. The Silver Age of Roman Literature - until the death of Emperor Trajan (AD 14 - 117).

V. Late imperial period (117 - 476 AD).

This periodization, although based on the one-sided principle of "evaluating" the language ("golden" and "silver" Latin, etc.), in essence quite satisfactorily outlines the main milestones of the literary process in Rome. We will distinguish between the following periods in the history of Roman literature.

I. The era of the republic (up to the 30s. BC):

a) pre-literary period (up to the middle of the 3rd century);

b) the first century of Roman literature (until the middle of the second century; the time of the growth of the slave-owning republic);

c) literature of the last century of the republic (the period of civil wars from the end of the 2nd century to the 30s BC).

II. The era of the empire (30s BC - 476 AD):

a) literature of the time of the transition from republic to empire ("the age of Augustus", before 14 AD);

b) the literature of imperial Rome:

1) 1st century AD e. ("silver Age");

2) the latest Roman literature (II-V centuries).

31. Early Roman Literature (Review)

The first Roman poet was a captive Greek from Tarentum, a freedman of the Liviev family, Livy Andronicus (d. About 204 BC). He puts on tragedies and comedies based on Greek models. He also owns the Latin translation of Homer's Odyssey.

Before the appearance of the "Odyssey" by Livy Andronicus, the little Romans were taught the Latin language according to the set of laws of the XII tables. Thanks to Livy Andronicus, a more entertaining text was created - the Roman "Odyssey". Insignificant fragments have survived from the poem, and therefore it is not possible to form a complete picture of this first translation in the history of world literature. Only some of the features of the monument can be noted. The Roman poet tells about the wanderings of Odysseus, about the Listrigons, about the Cyclops and Kirk; seeking to bring his presentation closer to the understanding of the Roman reader, he introduced the Roman gods, sometimes commenting on Homer. However, the presentation of fairy-tale episodes was apparently devoid of rich Homeric imagery. The author often uses artificial archaisms. Libya's language is dry and prosaic. The poem is written in Saturn verse.

The tragedies of Libya interpret the plots of ancient Greek dramas - "Achilles", "Trojan horse", "Aegisthus", "Andromeda", "Hermione", etc.

From the very beginning of its appearance, the Roman drama was characterized by a combination of spoken scenes with singing, however, unlike the Greek, it did not have a chorus.

In the comedy, Livy is the ancestor of the palliata - the cloak comedy (from pallium - "Greek cloak"), that is, a play that is a remake of the Greek comedy. The characters of the palliat were dressed in Greek clothing. We know only a few names of Libya's comedies - "The Actor", "The Boastful Warrior", etc.

Livy also composes cult hymns. On the occasion of the gloomy signs that frightened the Romans in 207 BC. he wrote the hymn "Parthenius", sung by a choir of 27 girls.

Livy Andronicus was not the only poet in the early period of Roman literature. Poems and others were written in Saturn's verse. Grammars mention a poem dedicated to Priam ("Carmen Priami") and the mythological hero Nelei ("Carmen Nelei"). However, we do not have more detailed information about these poems and their authors. The successor of Livy Andronicus was Gnei Nevi (274-201 BC). An Italian from Campania, he fought as a soldier of the Italic legions in the first Punic War. Oi dedicated the poem "The Punic War" ("Bellum Punicum") to this war.

Nevi's literary activity is developing at a time when the democratic movement is somewhat revived in Rome. After the first Punic War, G. Flaminius, the tribune of the people of 232, became the head of the democratic forces. With his assistance, a law was passed on the division between the citizens of the lands seized from the Gauls. Gnei Nevy is a supporter of the democratic group. In his comedies, he attacks representatives of the Roman nobility. FROM

a fragment was preserved, which tells how the son takes home his father - a famous commander who got drunk at a merry feast. Roman grammars indicate that Nevi is making fun of the famous statesman Scipio Africanus the Elder here. Scipio headed at this time a large group of the Roman nobility, against which the representatives of the Roman plebs took up arms. In separate fragments of Nevi, the festival of Dionysus - "Liberalia", during which the people spoke "in a free language" is glorified.

For his political attacks, Nevy, according to the testimony of the comedian Plautus, was even subjected to judicial repression, put on a pillory. However, the fact that he ended his life outside Rome, in Africa, in Utica, in 201, when Scipio Africanus was there, suggests that the poet was looking for reconciliation with the head of the Roman nobles.

The titles and the few fragments of the comedies indicate that Nevi not only used neo-Attic comedy, but also introduced local Italic elements into his plays.

In fragments of the comedy "The Fortuneteller" one of the characters makes fun of the tastes of the inhabitants of the cities of Preneste and Lanuvia. The play "On the Tunic" ("Tunicularia") got its name from Roman clothing.

The heroine of the comedy "Trentinochka" is a cheerful heterosexual from Tarentum. She resorts to various tricks to keep numerous admirers around her: she nods to some, waves to others, loves one, holds another, touches one with her hand, touches another with her foot, lets one admire her ring, makes signs with her lips to another, sings with one, and another gives signals with his fingers. "The tragedies of Nevi were, like the dramas of Livy Andronicus, a reworking of ancient Greek dramas. He puts on the tragedies" Iphigenia "," Trojan Horse "," Lycurgus "and others. the Roman theme, the pretexta - the ceremonial dress of the Roman priests and magistrates.The heroes of the pretextat are dressed in Roman clothes, and the theme of the drama is taken from Roman life.

According to the testimony of the ancients, two pretext books belonged to Nevi: "Clastidius" and "Romulus". One was dedicated to the victory of the general Marcellus over the Gauls at Clastidia in 222, the plot of the other was the legend of the founder of Rome - Romulus.

In his poem on the Punic War, Nevi tried to combine the epic style of Homer with the dry narrative style of the Roman chronicles. For the style of the chronicle, for example, the description of the attack of the Romans on the island of Malta is typical: "The Roman army is being transported to Malta, the blossoming island ravages, destroys, devastates, and completes its enemy business."

The poem began with a description of the siege of the Sicilian city of Agrigenta in 262. The famous temple of Zeus was located here. On the eastern pediment of the temple was depicted the struggle of gods and giants, on the western - the destruction of Troy.

Starting with a description of the temple, Nevi then moved, apparently, from a historical theme to a mythological one, from the siege of Agrigent to the story of the flight from Troy of the future founder of the Roman state, Aeneas. The second book was devoted to the wanderings of Aeneas and his arrival in Italy. The other five books dealt with various episodes of the first Punic War.

The poem also had an Olympic plan, like Homer's. Separate fragments are devoted to the conversation between Venus and Jupiter about the fate of the Roman state.

From the literary monuments of the most ancient period, only the comedies (palliats) of Plautus and Terence have come down to us completely.

The literary work of poets, the creation of samples of Latin prose had the most favorable influence on the development of Roman law. Lawyers used the achievements of Roman prose, and it was in this era that the clear and precise language was created with which the outstanding works of legal literature of the era of the Empire were written. We bring to your attention information only about some of the Roman writers and poets.

Virgil Maron, Publius (70 -19 BC) Literary activity began in Rome. He writes epigrams and epic poems. In Rome, Virgil meets Maecenas, companion and diplomat of Emperor Octavian Augustus (63 BC - 14 AD). In honor of the Maecenas, Virgil composed a didactic poem about agriculture and peaceful rural life. The pinnacle of his poetry was the Aeneid, in which he glorified the power of the Roman Empire and Augustus. The poem had a profound influence on all subsequent Roman and Western European literature.

Augustus, Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian (63 BC - 14 AD) The Emperor Augustus is one of the most significant figures in the history of Ancient Rome. His legislative activity was aimed at improving the state and judicial systems, strengthening the institution of the Roman family and the moral foundations of Roman society. Augustus entered the political arena as Caesar's adopted son and heir. He was the sole ruler of the state, the highest military power was concentrated in his hands. The international policy of Augustus was aimed at strengthening the authority of Rome, at rejecting new conquests. This contributed to the stabilization so desired after the era of civil wars. The reign of Augustus was also marked by the flourishing of the arts.

Gaius Cilnius Maecenas (lat.Gāius Cilnius Maecēnās, about 70 BC - 8 BC) is an ancient Roman statesman and patron of the arts. A personal friend of Octavian Augustus and a kind of minister of culture with him. The name of the Maecenas as a fan of fine arts and patron of poets has become a household name.

Horace Flaccus, Quintus (65 -8 BC) He received an excellent education in the schools of Rome. The poetry of Horace is an example of the classic grace of verbal expression. His influence on the subsequent development of culture was enormous. Derzhavin, Batyushkov, Delvig, Apollo Maikov and other Russian poets were interested in his work in Russia.

Quintilian Marcus Fabius (c. 35 -96) Theorist of eloquence, the first rhetorician to be recruited into the civil service, the pride of Rome. By old age, he was appointed heir to the throne. The author of the treatise "Education of the orator" (12 books - the largest of the surviving ancient works on rhetoric). Quintilian argued that the main goals of the education of an orator are morality and taste. Morality should be taken care of from infancy, and taste should be developed on classical models. The main model is Cicero: "The more you like Cicero, the more you are confident in your success."

The writing material in antiquity was papyrus, parchment, and waxed tablets, the letters on which were scratched in the so-called style - a pointed reed stick. Hard material was used for short official inscriptions. (see next slide) All Roman literary monuments have come down to us in medieval manuscripts, and a significant number of works by Roman authors have been irretrievably lost.

Orator Writing materials: 1 - wax tablets; 2 - style; 3 - papyrus scroll; 4 - inkpots and fountain pen

Livy Titus (59 BC - 17 AD) Writer and historian. He wrote 142 books, but only a few “decades” have survived (the ten-books and later summaries of his history “from the founding of the city” (Rome). Titus Livy viewed history as a “teacher of life.” If his contemporary Virgil was the creator of the "Aeneid" - Roman history in verse, then the entire history of Libya can be called a pictorial epic of Ancient Rome in prose.

Lucretius Carus (c. 96 -55 BC) Roman poet-philosopher of the era of civil wars. An admirer of the philosophy of Epicurus, Lucretius popularizes his ideas in the didactic poem "On the Nature of Things". The first three books describe the doctrine of atoms. The fourth is devoted to the theory of knowledge, the fifth - to astronomy, geology and the history of human culture. The sixth book explains various natural phenomena, and the poem ends with a description of the epidemic in Athens in the 5th century. BC e. In Lucretia, the modern reader is consonant with a living sensation of nature, faith in man, in his mind in the progress of mankind

Ovid Nazon, Publius (43 BC - 18 AD) For posterity, Ovid remained the third member of the great poetic triumvirate of antiquity: Virgil, Horace, Ovid. He was the singer of humanity and humanity. Each era learned from him humanism in its own way. For the Middle Ages, he was the mentor of the practice of courtesy and the theory of world affinity. In the feudal-knightly poetry of the troubadours, Ovid is an example of a singer of love. For the Renaissance and classicism, Ovid's work is a source of norms of gallant behavior and an inexhaustible source of entertaining stories.

Pliny the Younger, Gaius Caecilius Secundus (c. 61 - c. 114) Was a student of the theorist of eloquence Quintilian. Distinguished by oratorical skills, he passed the entire ladder of government positions. Under Emperor Trajan, he became consul. The Panegyric to Trajanu is the only surviving speech of Pliny the Younger. His ideal in lifestyle and in literary pursuits was Cicero, both genres to which Pliny the Younger devoted his life were - judicial speeches and letters (10 books).

Seneca the Younger, Lucius Anney (c. 4 BC - 65 AD) Seneca's prose writings include 12 books of small philosophical treatises and a large collection of letters on moral topics to a young friend, the philosopher Lucilius. Here he showed masterly verbal skill. In addition to philosophical prose, nine tragedies have survived from Seneca's writings: Mad Hercules, Medea, Oedipus, etc. His tragedies are works for reading, not for staging. Seneca was revered on a par with Socrates. He took possession of souls and forced himself to imitate, willingly or unwillingly, from the "Confessions" of Augustine to the dramas of Shakespeare.

Tacitus Publius Cornelius (c. 54 - c. 123) Received a very good literary education and became a prominent judicial orator. Tacitus's two main works (History and Annals) are permeated with an accusation against the tyrannical regime of the empire. His historical works are distinguished by the depth of psychological analysis, the beauty of descriptions and characteristics. Tacitus was precisely a Roman historian: Rome, the Roman Senate and the people - these are the objects of his attention. Tacitus was highly praised by his contemporaries.

Phaedrus (c. 15 BC - 70 AD) Was a slave by birth. The main genre of his work is a fable. He transforms the Greek fables of the legendary Aesop into Latin verses and composes new ones after their model. Preserved 120 of Phaedrus's fables. In the fable, he valued not the exposition, but the moral. In Western Europe, Phaedrus's fables were used by the French fabulist La Fontaine. In Russia, some subjects of his fables were used by Krylov.

Caesar Gaius Julius (100 -44 BC) Politician, commander, writer. He found time for theoretical problems in the Latin language. Major works - "Notes on the Gallic War" and "Notes on the Civil War" (events of 49 -43 BC). In the Notes, the speeches of the characters are conveyed by Caesar mainly in an indirect form, he writes about himself in the third person in order to give the impression of a greater objectivity of the narrative. Simplicity, clarity, clarity of style, limited to a minimum vocabulary contributed to the fact that in modern times Julius Caesar became the first "gymnasium" author.

Cicero Mark Tullius (106 -43 BC) Received a general and rhetorical education. Brilliant oratorical skills helped him to achieve public office. Cicero was the most enlightened man of the era, a brilliant orator and a talented writer. Preserved 58 of his speeches, 7 treatises on rhetoric, 12 treatises on philosophy and about a thousand letters. The most famous are "Letters to Atticus". In the Theory of Eloquence, Cicero defends the idea of ​​harmony of verbal expression and content. Distinctive features of the oratory of Cicero himself are not only the depth of knowledge, but also musical periodicity, rhythm; careful selection of stylistically neutral words. For Europe, he became the embodiment of the humanism of republican antiquity. In Rome, they read him in schools, wrote comments on his speeches.

Cicero's quotes are well known: History is a witness of times, the light of truth, the life of memory, the teacher of life, the messenger of antiquity. In the treatise "On the orator" (De Oratore II). Speech should flow and develop from knowledge of the subject. If the speaker has not studied it, then all eloquence is a vain, childish effort. - In the treatise On the Orator, the Letter does not blush. - In a letter to Lucius Lucceus. We must be slaves to the laws to be free. - From a speech in defense of Kluentius.

Thus, the literary Latin language developed thanks to the work of Roman writers and poets and for several centuries remained the language of science, jurisprudence, worship, and diplomacy.