In the process of life, we from time to time come across Roman numerals from 1 to 1000, once popular in the Roman Empire and the Middle Ages. They are used to indicate the number of centuries or millennia, blood type on military uniforms, the number of volumes in books, valence in a group chemical elements and much more. Having been popular at the beginning of our era, they gradually lost the palm, and are now used sporadically, under the influence of tradition or ceremony. What are the Roman numerals from 1 to 1000, what is their peculiarity, and why did they give way to their eastern, Arab-Indian competitors? Let's figure it out.

Roman numerals - genesis

Roman numerals (they are often mistakenly called “Latin”) are the development and heritage of Roman civilization. The ancient Romans created them to facilitate counting, in order to make it easier and more convenient to count various goods and services.

Roman numerals were widely used during the existence of a unified Roman state, as well as after its split into the Western and Eastern Roman Empire. Even after the fall of Constantinople, they continued to be used in various barbarian kingdoms until the end of the Middle Ages, until they gradually lost out to the Arab-Indian figures that dominate to this day.

Representation of Roman numerals from 1 to 1000

Roman numerals are represented by seven different letters - I, V, X, L, C, D and M, each of which represents a different number.

You can remember Roman numerals from 1 to 1000 using the following phrase (in descending order):

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These seven letters are used to represent many different numbers, usually using summation. For example, the Roman numeral 2 is written as “II” (just two ones added together). The number 12 is like XII, that is, X+II. Well, number 27 is written as XXVII, that is, as a combination of XX + V + II.

Roman numerals were easily displayed with fingers

As you can see, Roman numerals are written starting from the largest digit and ending with the smallest, from left to right. However, that's not all. The Romans really did not like 4 numbers of the same type in a row, so they developed a special subtraction system.

In Roman numerals the number 3 is written as "III". However, the digit for the number 4 will not be “IIII”, since there are four symbols of the same type here, and the principle of subtraction must be used. In Roman numerals, the number 4 will be written as “IV”, that is, numbers 1 and 5. Since the smaller digit (1) comes before the larger one (5), we subtract the smaller digit from the larger digit and get 4. The same principle is used for the number "9", which in the Roman system is written as "IX" (1 and 10)

Here are six more similar examples that allow you to use Roman numerals from 1 to 1000:

• I can come before V (5) and X (10) creating the numbers 4 and 9.
• X can come before L (50) and C (100) creating the numbers 40 and 90.
• C can come before D (500) and M (1000) creating the numbers 400 and 900.

Number 1994 is an excellent example for this rule. In Roman numerals it looks like MCMXCIV, that is, M = 1000, CM = 900, XC = 90 and IV = 4.

Years and dates

To write the year in Roman numerals from 1 to 1000, we need large numbers. For example, we start the 2020 entry with MM (2000), add XX (20) and get MMXX.

Years from the 20th century are just as easy to obtain. We start with the number 1900 (MSM), to which we add the required number of years. For example, 1985 would look like MSM (1900) LXXX (80) + V (5) = MCMLXXXV.

Large Roman numerals

Since the digit M (1000) is the largest number in the Roman numeral system, and we can only use three identical symbols when creating a number, the maximum number represented in the Roman numeral system is 3999 (MMMCMXCIX). However, we can write large numbers, we just need to draw a top line over the numbers to multiply them by 1000.

For example, the Roman notation for the number 5000 (5*1000) is written as

1 million (1000*1000) is written as

Accordingly, 1,550,000 is written as

As you can see, everything is quite simple.

Table of Roman numerals from one to thousand

Below I have inserted a table of Arabic (Russian) numerals starting from 1 to 1000 and the corresponding Roman numerals.

Conclusion

The specification of Roman numerals involves the use of only seven letters denoting round numbers from 1 to 1000. Despite their former widespread use, the principles of addition and subtraction of such numbers carry a number of inconveniences for the counter, as a result of which the Roman numeral system lost competition to the more advanced Arabic model. Nevertheless, we can find Roman numerals in sports, military, scientific and other fields, therefore it is important to know the features of their display and application.

We don't use Roman numerals often. And everyone seems to know that we traditionally use Roman numerals to denote centuries, and years and exact dates - Arabic numerals. Just the other day I had to explain to Arab :-)) and Chinese students what, for example, XCIV or CCLXXVIII :-)) is. I learned a lot of interesting things for myself when I was looking for material. I’m sharing :-)) Maybe someone else will need it :-))

Roman numerals

Roman numerals are special characters used to record decimal places and their halves. To denote numbers, 7 letters of the Latin alphabet are used:

Roman Numeral Number

I 1
V 5
X 10
L 50
C 100
D 500
M 1000

Natural numbers are written by repeating these 7 Roman numerals.

Mnemonic rule for remembering the letter designations of Roman numerals in descending order (the author of the rule is A. Kasperovich):

M s
D we eat
C tips
L look
X ok
V well-mannered
I to individuals

Rules for writing numbers in Roman numerals:

If a larger number comes before a smaller one, then they are added (addition principle),
- if a smaller number comes before a larger one, then the smaller one is subtracted from the larger one (subtraction principle).

The second rule is used to avoid repeating the same number four times. Thus, Roman numerals I, X, C are placed respectively before X, C, M to indicate 9, 90, 900 or before V, L, D to indicate 4, 40, 400.

VI = 5+1 = 6,
IV = 5 - 1 = 4 (instead of IIII),
XIX = 10 + 10 - 1 = 19 (instead of XVIIII),
XL = 50 - 10 =40 (instead of XXXX),
XXXIII = 10 + 10 + 10 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 33, etc.

It should be noted that performing even arithmetic operations on multi-digit numbers in this notation is very inconvenient. Probably, the complexity of calculations in the Roman numbering system, based on the use of Latin letters, was one of the compelling reasons for replacing it with a more convenient decimal system of numbers.

The Roman numbering system, which dominated Europe for two thousand years, is now in very limited use. Roman numerals are used to indicate centuries (XII century), months when indicating the date on monuments (21.V.1987), time on watch dials, ordinal numbers, derivatives of small orders.

Additional Information:

To correctly write large numbers in Roman numerals, you must first write the number of thousands, then hundreds, then tens, and finally units.

Example : number 1988. One thousand M, nine hundred CM, eighty LXXX, eight VIII. Let's write them down together: MCMLXXXVIII.

Quite often, to highlight numbers in the text, a line was drawn over them: LXIV. Sometimes a line was drawn both above and below: XXXII - in particular, this is how it is customary to highlight Roman numerals in Russian handwritten text (this is not used in typesetting due to technical complexity). For other authors, the overbar could indicate an increase in the value of the figure by 1000 times: VM = 6000.

Tissot watch with the traditional “IIII” spelling

Exists "shortcut" to write large numbers such as 1999. It Not recommended, but sometimes used for simplicity. The difference is that to reduce a digit, any digit can be written to the left of it:

999. Thousand (M), subtract 1 (I), we get 999 (IM) instead of CMXCIX. Consequence: 1999 - MIM instead of MCMXCIX
95. One hundred (C), subtract 5 (V), get 95 (VC) instead of XCV
1950: Thousand (M), subtract 50 (L), get 950 (LM). Consequence: 1950 - MLM instead of MCML

This method is widely used by Western film companies when writing the year of release of a film in the credits.

It was only in the 19th century that the number “four” was written down as “IV”; before that, the number “IIII” was most often used. However, the entry “IV” can already be found in the documents of the Forme of Cury manuscript dating back to 1390. Watch dials have traditionally used "IIII" instead of "IV" in most cases, mainly for aesthetic reasons: this spelling provides visual symmetry with the "VIII" numerals on the opposite side, and an inverted "IV" is more difficult to read than "IIII".

Another version.

There are seven basic numbers used to write integers in Roman numeration:

I = 1
V=5
X = 10
L=50
C=100
D = 500
M = 1000

In this case, some of the numbers (I, X, C, M) may repeat, but no more than three times, thus, they can be used to write any integer up to 3999 (MMMCMXCIX). When writing numbers in the Roman numeral system, the smaller digit may appear to the right of the larger one; in this case it is added to it. For example, the number 283 in Roman is written like this:

i.e. 200+50+30+3=283. Here the figure representing a hundred is repeated twice, and the figures representing ten and one, respectively, are repeated three times.

The smaller number can be written to the left of the larger one, then it should be subtracted from the larger one. In this case, repetitions of a smaller number are not allowed. Let's write the number 94 in Roman:

XCIV=100-10+5-1=94.

This is the so called "subtraction rule": it appeared in late antiquity (before that, the Romans wrote the number 4 as IIII, and the number 40 as XXXX). There are six ways to use the "subtraction rule":

IV = 4
IX = 9
XL=40
XC = 90
CD = 400
CM = 900

It should be noted that other methods of "subtraction" are not acceptable; thus, the number 99 should be written as XCIX, but not as IC. However, nowadays in some cases a simplified notation of Roman numerals is used: for example, in Microsoft program Excel, when converting Arabic numerals to Roman using the "ROMAN()" function, you can use several types of number representation, from classical to highly simplified (for example, the number 499 can be written as CDXCIX, LDVLIV, XDIX, VDIV or ID).

From here it is clear that in order to avoid 4-fold repetition, the maximum possible number here is 3999, i.e. MMMIM

Large numbers can also be written using Roman numerals. To do this, a line is placed over those numbers that denote thousands, and a double line is placed over those numbers that denote millions. For example, the number 123123 would look like this:
_____
CXXIIICXXIII

And a million is like Ī, but with not one, but two features at the head.

Examples of writing numbers in Roman and Arabic numerals

Roman numerals Arabic numerals

I 1 unus
II 2 duo
III 3 tres
IV 4 quattuor
V 5 quinque
VI 6 sex
VII 7 september
VIII 8 octo
IX 9 November
X 10 December
XI 11 undecim
XII 12 duodecim
XIII 13 tredecim
XIV 14 quattuordecim
XV 15 quindecim
XVI 16 sedecim
XVII 17 september
XVIII 18 duodeviginti
XIX 19 undeviginti
XX 20 viginti
XXI 21 unus et viginti
XXX 30 triginta
XL 40 quadraginta
L 50 quinquaginta
LX 60 sexaginta
LXX 70 septuaginta
LXXX 80 octoginta
XC 90 nonaginta
C 100 centum
CC 200 centi
CCC 300 trecenti
CD 400 quadringenti
D 500 quingenti
DC 600 sescenti
DCC 700 septingenti
DCCC 800 octingenti
CM 900 nongenti
M 1000 mille
MM 2000 duo milia
MMM 3000
MMMIM(largest number) 3999

Additional examples:

XXXI 31
XLVI 46
XCIX 99
DLXXXIII 583
DCCCLXXXVIII 888
MDCLXVIII 1668
MCMLXXXIX 1989
MMIX 2009
MMXI 2011

So, how do you understand Latin numbers?
If the sign denoting a smaller number is to the right of the sign denoting a larger number, then the smaller is added to the larger; if on the left, then subtract:
VI - 6, i.e. 5+1
IV - 4, i.e. 5-1
LX - 60, i.e. 50+10
XL - 40, i.e. 50-10
CX - 110, i.e. 100+10
XC - 90, i.e. 100-10
MDCCCXII - 1812, i.e. 1000+500+100+100+100+10+1+1.

Different designations for the same number are possible. Thus, the number 80 can be represented as LXXX (50+10+10+10) and as XXC(100-20).
Basic Roman numerals look like this:
I(1) - unus (unus)
II(2) - duo (duo)
III(3) - tres (tres)
IV(4) - quattuor (quattuor)
V(5) - quinque
VI(6) - sex (sex)
VII (7) - septem (septem)
VIII (8) - octo (octo)
IX (9) - novem (novem)
X (10) - decem (decem), etc.

XX (20) - viginti (viginti)
XXI (21) - unus et viginti or viginti unus
XXII (22) - duo et viginti or viginti duo, etc.
XXVIII (28) - duodetriginta (duodetriginta)
XXIX (29) - undetriginta (undetriginta)
XXX (30) - triginta (triginta)
XL (40) - quadraginta (quadraginta)
L (50) - quinquaginta (quinquaginta)
LX (60) - sexaginta (sexaginta)
LXX (70) - septuaginta (septuaginta)
LXXX (80) - octoginta (octogintna)
XC (90) - nonaginta (nonaginta)
C (100) - centum (centum)
CC (200) - ducenti (ducenti)
CCC (300) - trecenti (trecenti)
CD (400) - quadrigenti (quadrigenti)
D (500) - quingenti (quingenti)
DC (600) - sexcenti (sexcenti)
DCC (700) - septigenti (septigenti)
DCCC(800) - octingenti (octigenti)
CM (DCCCC) (900) - nongenti (nongenti)
M (1000) - mille (mille)
MM (2000) - duo milia (duo milia)
V (5000) - quinque milia (quinque milia)
X (10000) - decem milia (decem milia)
XX (20000) - viginti milia (viginti milia)
C (1,000,000) - centum milia (centum milia)
XI (1000000) - decies centena milia (decies centena milia)"

Elena Dolotova.

We all use Roman numerals - we use them to mark the numbers of centuries or months of the year. Roman numerals are found on clock dials, including the chimes of the Spasskaya Tower. We use them, but we don't know much about them.

How do Roman numerals work?

The Roman counting system in its modern version consists of the following basic signs:

I 1
V 5
X 10
L 50
C 100
D 500
M 1000

To remember numbers that are unusual for us who use the Arabic system, there are several special mnemonic phrases in Russian and English:
We Give Juicy Lemons, That's Enough
We Give Advice Only to Well-Educated Individuals
I Value Xylophones Like Cows Dig Milk

The system for arranging these numbers relative to each other is as follows: numbers up to three inclusive are formed by adding units (II, III) - repeating any number four times is prohibited. To form numbers greater than three, the larger and smaller digits are added or subtracted, for subtraction the smaller digit is placed before the larger one, for addition - after, (4 = IV), the same logic applies to other digits (90 = XC). The order of thousands, hundreds, tens and units is the same as what we are used to.

It is important that any number should not be repeated more than three times, so the longest number up to a thousand is 888 = DCCCLXXXVIII (500+100+100+100+50+10+10+10+5+1+1+1).

Alternative options

The ban on the fourth use of the same number in a row began to appear only in the 19th century. Therefore, in ancient texts one can see variants IIII and VIII instead of IV and IX, and even IIII or XXXXXX instead of V and LX. Remnants of this writing can be seen on the clock, where four is often marked with four units. In old books, there are also frequent cases of double subtractions - XIIX or IIXX instead of the standard XVIII.

Also in the Middle Ages, a new Roman numeral appeared - zero, which was denoted by the letter N (from the Latin nulla, zero). Large numbers were marked with special signs: 1000 - ↀ (or C|Ɔ), 5000 – ↁ (or |Ɔ), 10000 – ↂ (or CC|ƆƆ). Millions are obtained by double underlining standard numbers. Fractions were also written in Roman numerals: ounces were marked using symbols - 1/12, half was marked with the symbol S, and everything greater than 6/12 was marked with an addition: S = 10\12. Another option is S::.

Origin

At the moment there is no single theory of the origin of Roman numerals. One of the most popular hypotheses is that Etruscan-Roman numerals originated from a counting system that uses notched strokes instead of numbers.

Thus, the number “I” is not the Latin or more ancient letter “i”, but a notch reminiscent of the shape of this letter. Every fifth notch was marked with a bevel - V, and the tenth was crossed out - X. The number 10 in this count looked like this: IIIIΛIIIIX.

It is thanks to this recording of numbers in a row that we owe a special system of adding Roman numerals: over time, the recording of the number 8 (IIIIΛIII) could be reduced to ΛIII, which convincingly demonstrates how the Roman counting system acquired its specificity. Gradually, the notches turned into graphic symbols I, V and X, and acquired independence. Later they began to be identified with Roman letters - since they were similar in appearance to them.

An alternative theory belongs to Alfred Cooper, who suggested looking at the Roman counting system from a physiological point of view. Cooper believes that I, II, III, IIII is a graphical representation of the number of fingers of the right hand that the trader throws out when calling the price. V is the extended thumb, which together with the palm forms a figure similar to the letter V.

That is why Roman numerals add up not only ones, but also add them with fives - VI, VII, etc. - this is the thumb thrown back and the other fingers of the hand extended. The number 10 was expressed by crossing the hands or fingers, hence the symbol X. Another option was to simply double the number V, getting an X. Large numbers were transmitted using the left palm, which counted tens. So gradually the signs of ancient finger counting became pictograms, which then began to be identified with the letters of the Latin alphabet.

Modern Application

Today in Russia, Roman numerals are needed, first of all, to record the number of the century or millennium. It is convenient to place Roman numerals next to Arabic ones - if you write the century in Roman numerals, and then the year in Arabic, then your eyes will not be dazzled by the abundance of identical signs. Roman numerals have a certain connotation of archaism. They are also traditionally used to indicate the serial number of the monarch (Peter I), the volume number of a multi-volume publication, and sometimes the chapter of a book. Roman numerals are also used in antique watch dials. Important numbers, such as the year of the Olympiad or the number of a scientific law, can also be recorded using Roman numerals: World War II, Euclid's V postulate.

IN different countries Roman numerals are used slightly differently: in the USSR it was customary to indicate the month of the year using them (1.XI.65). In the West, the year number is often written in Roman numerals in the credits of films or on the facades of buildings.

In parts of Europe, especially in Lithuania, you can often find the days of the week designated in Roman numerals (I – Monday, and so on). In Holland, Roman numerals are sometimes used to denote floors. And in Italy they mark 100-meter sections of the route, marking, at the same time, every kilometer with Arabic numerals.

In Russia, when writing by hand, it is customary to emphasize the Roman numerals below and above at the same time. However, often in other countries, the underscore meant increasing the case of the number by 1000 times (or 10,000 times with a double underscore).

There is a common misconception that modern Western clothing sizes have some connection with Roman numerals. In fact, the designations are XXL, S, M, L, etc. have no connection with them: these are abbreviations English words eXtra (very), Small (small), Large (large).

What are Roman numerals? These are the numbers that were used by the ancient Romans in a non-positional number system. Roman numerals have several interesting features and one of them is that if a smaller number comes before a larger one, then the smaller one is subtracted from the larger one, and if a smaller one comes after the larger one, then those numbers are added.

Roman numerals are still used today. For example, they are often used in dials or when writing stories, poems, problems, etc. Today we’ll talk about how to write Roman numerals on the keyboard.

Letters

First, let's remember how Roman numerals are designated:

• 1 - I

• 5 - V

• 10 - X

• 50 - L

• 100 - C

• 500 - D

• 1000 - M

Formally, Latin letters are used for designation, so they can be used to represent Roman numerals. To do this, I will give a few examples so that you can understand.

• Let's take the number 1 - this is the Latin letter I (capital letter i on the English layout).

• 2.3 - II and III, respectively.

• 4 is a combination of letters IV. You didn't forget, you forgot that in in this case Is the smaller number subtracted from the larger number?

• 5 - V.

• 6 - VI. In a particular case, the numbers add up.

• 7.8 - VII and VIII, respectively.

• 9, 11 - IX and XI, respectively.

• 10 - X.

• 21 - XXI.

• 24, 26 - XXIV and XXVI.

• 34 - XXXIV.

• 51 - LI.

• 378 - CCCLXXVIII.

In general, I think the essence is clear to you. Using Roman numerals is not at all difficult if you do not forget the rules of construction.

ASCII codes

If you don't want to use Latin letters, you can use ASCII - this is a table in which you can find printable and non-printable numeric codes. It is available on any Windows operating system.

To use the codes, you need to do the following: enable Num Lock mode if it is disabled (this is a button on the keyboard).

Then press and hold the ALT key and type the appropriate combination of numbers on the secondary keyboard.

• 73 - I

• 86 - V

• 88 - X

• 76 - L

• 67 - C

• 68 - D

• 77 - M

This method is not very convenient, so it is easier to use capital letters.