Glass is a material that has no analogues in some properties. Until now, natural ingredients are used for its production, the repeated processing of a damaged product can occur repeatedly without loss of quality and almost without waste.

Definition

Glass can be in several states of aggregation at different stages of production. And yet, glass - what is it and what is it made of?

According to the scientific definition, glass is any amorphous body obtained by the melt method, which, with increasing viscosity, acquires the properties of a solid body. The process of transition from one state to another is reversible.

Material history

In everyday life, we use glass every day. What it is and what it is made of - these are rarely asked questions in modern times, the material is so familiar to us. Scientists believe that glass was first obtained by accident, it is impossible to trace the origin of technology. The first products date back to around 2540 BC. Three components were present in the ancient recipe - soda, sand and alumina. In the future, they learned how to improve the properties of the material by adding chalk, dolomite and other components to the main ingredients. The entire composition from which glass is brewed is called charge.

Colored glass began to be obtained using natural pigments - chromium oxide, nickel oxide, cobalt additives. The first molded product was obtained in the 1st century AD by Roman craftsmen. They also invented sheet glass. The technology for the production of glass in sheets consisted in blowing a huge, human-sized cylindrical bubble from a hot mass. Until it cooled, it was cut along the long part and laid out on pallets for alignment. This technique was widespread until the beginning of the 20th century. In Russia, glass production was opened in the 17th century and was located in the village of Dukhanino, at that time only foreigners were masters.

Compound

Glass is used for many purposes. What is glass, we figured out, and what are its main ingredients? The composition of the initial ingredients for the entire period of the practice of manufacturing the material has not changed. Three main components make up the base (charge) - silica or quartz sand, soda (sodium oxide) and calcium oxide, known as lime. The components are combined in certain proportions and melted in a furnace at a temperature of 300 to 2500 ° C. Depending on the desired properties, potash, boric anhydride, broken glass from previous melts or recycled raw materials are added to the composition of the charge, depending on the desired properties.

Technology

To enhance or weaken the properties of the compounds, enhancers, opacifiers, dyes, decolorizers, etc. are added to the melting process. After cooking, the mass is quickly cooled, which makes it possible to avoid the formation of crystals. Of all the components, the largest percentage in the recipe is sand - from 60 to 80%. The sand acts as a core around which the vitreous material is formed. Glass production technology has remained unchanged for centuries.

Lime is another component without which glass cannot be produced. What is calcium oxide in the ingredients? This component gives the material chemical resistance and enhances gloss. Glass can only be smelted from sand and soda, but without lime it will dissolve in water. The third player in the mixture is metal oxide - sodium or potassium (up to 17%). It is introduced into the mixture in the form of soda ash or potash. These components reduce the melting point, allowing individual grains of sand to completely melt and combine into a monolith.

Kinds

Depending on the components used in the mixture, the types of glass are divided:

• Quartz. It is made from one component - silica. It has high qualities: resistant to high temperature (up to 1000 °C) and thermal shock, transmits the visible and ultraviolet radiation spectrum. Production is associated with high energy costs, since silica (silicate glass) is a refractory raw material and is difficult to mold. The main areas of application are chemical and laboratory glassware, parts of optical systems, mercury lamps, etc.
• Sodium silicate. It is made of two components, glass composition - silicate sand and soda (1:3). Due to its properties, it is widely used in industry as a component of any process, but is not used in other areas, products are not made from it. The main disadvantage is that it dissolves in water.
• Lime. The most common type of material from which most products are made is sheet glass, glass containers, mirror sheets, dishes and much more.
• Lead. Lead oxide is proportionally added to the classical composition of glass (charge). Lead glass is characterized by increased dielectric properties, which makes it possible to use it as the best insulating composition in television tubes, oscilloscopes, capacitors, etc. The presence of lead in the glass mass gives the material an additional shine, sparkle, which is often used in the manufacture art products, dishes, etc. Crystal - one of the types of lead glass.
• Borosilicate. The addition of boron oxide to the composition of the material increases its resistance to thermal shock up to 5 times, significantly improves Chemical properties. Borosilicate glass is used for the manufacture of pipes and laboratory-chemical glassware, household items. A large-scale use case is a borosilicate glass mirror for the world's largest telescope.
• Other types of glass - aluminosilicate, borate, colored, etc.

Types of window glass

Window glass is the most demanded type of material. It skips sunlight, provides thermal insulation in winter and summer, prevents the penetration of noise, aesthetically decorates the window opening and performs many more functions. Today there is a wide choice of types of glass, each of which meets certain requirements:

• Energy saving. A type of glass tinted in bulk or covered with a special film that ensures the penetration of short-wave solar radiation into the room, and the long-wave radiation of heating devices is not released from the room. The second name is selective glass. To date, several types of coatings have been developed. The most promising are - K-glass (deposition of metal oxides on the surface) and i-glass (vacuum multilayer deposition of silver - dielectric).
• Sunscreen. Reduces the transmission of sunlight into the room. They are divided into two types - reflective and absorbing. The effect is achieved either by tinting glass in bulk during cooking, or by applying a special film to the surface.
• Decorative. Window glass with additional aesthetic characteristics - patterned, colored, etc.

Safety glasses

One of the negative qualities of glass is its fragility, there are technologies for strengthening the material. The most common types:

• Reinforced. Sheet glass, during the formation of which a metal mesh is introduced into the mass. Scope of application - industrial premises, street lighting, lining of elevator shafts, etc.
• Laminated or triplex. Two or more glasses are held together with a special film or liquid. This type of material significantly reduces the noise level in the premises. Also, when using additional color filters during lamination, it can perform sun protection functions. Triplex has a high mechanical stability, when the sheet is broken, the fragments remain attached to the film, which makes it as safe as possible for use in facade, balcony, window, and door glazing.
• fire resistant. Most often, it is produced using the lamination technology with special films, which at temperatures above 120 ° C change their physical properties and, expanding, become dull, giving the glass rigidity.
• Protective. It is a multilayer material consisting of several types of glass bonded with a polymer film. For example, silicate glass is bonded to polycarbonate and organic glass. Such a translucent block is resistant to mechanical, chemical, shock damage. Security glass types include bulletproof, impact-resistant, puncture-resistant and other types. Technical requirements to the material and classification of protective glasses are regulated by GOST R 51136.
• Tempered. Possesses high strength characteristics. The effect is ensured by the technology of glass production - in a special tunnel furnace, the sheets are exposed to high temperatures for a short time and are quickly cooled. When broken, tempered glass shatters into small pieces that do not pose a threat to life and health. The disadvantage is the impossibility of mechanical processing of the hardened web; at the slightest impact, it collapses. Most tempered glass products are first shaped, cut, or otherwise processed before being tempered.

Auto Glass

Glasses for cars have increased strength characteristics that meet safety requirements. To date, two technologies are used in production - lamination (triplex) and hardening (stalinite):

• Tempered receive heat treatment ordinary silicate glass, heating it in a furnace to a temperature of +600 ° C, followed by rapid cooling. It acquires mechanical and thermal strength, but with strong impacts it collapses, disintegrating into small safe fragments that lack cutting and piercing edges. Russian marking- the letter "Z", European - "T" or Tempered.
• Laminated - these are two thin sheet glasses bonded with a polymer film under the influence of temperature and vacuum. The properties of glass are such that it remains intact under strong impacts, does not break into fragments if it bursts. Parts remain bonded with film. The triplex has additional features- tinting with color filters during the lamination process, additional interior noise insulation, low thermal conductivity, etc.

Modern developments

The twentieth century can be called a time of widespread use of glass. After the development of the technology of mechanical methods for obtaining the material, it began to be used in a variety of areas - as the thinnest fiber in the fields of telecommunications, with no less success it is used in large multi-ton blocks in building technologies.

The properties of glass are diverse, they are still being studied in scientific institutions, and craftsmen find new ways to use and invent new types. In 1940, glassmakers introduced foam glass to the world. Its qualities are:

• Lightness - does not sink in water, has a cellular structure, specific gravity slightly more than the weight of the cork.
• Moisture resistance, durability.
• Environmental friendliness (coke is added to the classic batch recipe).
• Fireproof (not flammable) and extinguishes fire.
• The material can be sawn into pieces without compromising quality.

The scope of application was insulating materials for hazardous industries, cold stores, etc.

For solar panels use glass with a conductive coating of a thin layer of metal oxide. Coated panels operate at temperatures around 350°C. In addition, such glass is mounted in aircraft cabins to avoid ice and keep heat inside the cabin.

An important achievement of modern times was the possibility of producing glass ceramics. The material is made using the technology of ordinary glass, but at the last stage of cooling, the process slows down, and crystallization occurs in the mass of the material. Catalysts are special additives that do not affect the external state of the glass, but form small crystals. The material withstands high temperatures without deformation and is more resistant to all kinds of damage. Used in rocket science household appliances, laboratories, engine parts and many other areas.

The basis of glass is one of the most common materials: quartz sand. It is subjected to special treatment, heated to critical temperatures. In this case, individual particles of sand are fused together. This is followed by rapid cooling of the resulting mass, during which the grains of sand simply do not have time to return to their original state.

The glass manufacturing process consists of several stages.:

1. Sand is melted to a liquid state in a special furnace. Quartz sand melts at a temperature of 2300 degrees Celsius. The addition of sodium carbonate (soda) reduces the temperature required for glass formation to 1500 degrees Celsius. However, baking soda causes water to corrode glass. Therefore, in order to neutralize this phenomenon, calcium oxide (lime) is additionally introduced into the glass.

2. Depending on the purpose of the glass, other chemicals are added to this mixture. The most common decorative glass additive is lead oxide, which provides a glossy finish as well as a low hardness that makes it easier to cut. To make glass more resistant, magnesium or aluminum oxides are added to it.

3. To give the glass the desired shade, oxides of various metals are added to the molten mass. For example, iron oxide makes it red, nickel oxide purple or brown, and uranium oxide yellow. Copper or chrome gives it a green color of different shades.

4. Gas bubbles are removed from the molten mass of sand, soda, lime and other components. This involves stirring the glass to a uniform thickness and adding substances such as sodium sulfate or chloride, antimony oxide.

5. Molten glass is shaped. This can be done in one of the following ways:

• The glass is poured into a bath of molten tin as the substrate and blown with pressurized nitrogen to form and polish. This is how sheet glass has been made since the 1950s.
• The molten mass is poured into a mold and the glass is allowed to cool. This method was used by the Egyptians and is how most optical lenses are made.
• The glass is collected at the end of a hollow tube and then blown out by turning this tube. Glass is formed by blown air, gravity acting on its melt, and any tools that the glassblower uses. This is how vases, glasses are made, Christmas decorations and other large items.

6. The glass is allowed to cool, after which it is again subjected to heat treatment. This is done to make the glass more durable. This process is called annealing and removes all point sources of stress that may have formed during the cooling of the glass.

7. At the final stage, various coatings are applied to the glass, laminated or processed in some other way to increase strength and durability. Sheet glass is cut into standard sheets.

Every day using glass objects, almost no one thinks about what this material is obtained from. How are sometimes amazingly beautiful interior items made? How is glass made? Why does sunlight freely enter the room through the window? How do certain types of glass not break even when hit hard?

Production technology

The main material for the manufacture of glass is quartz sand. Yes, the very one that is strewn with sandy beaches and on which you can walk barefoot with pleasure in the summer.

Glass production begins with the fact that the amount of the smallest quartz accurately measured on electronic scales is heated to a temperature of over 1500 degrees C. The grains of sand melt, forming a homogeneous mass. Soda ash and limestone are added to them in small quantities. For what purpose?

The soda ash acts as a kind of catalyst in this process and causes the sand to melt at a lower temperature, about 850 degrees C. This reduces the energy costs of production. But soda is not used without limestone. This fact is explained simply: molten sand and soda ash, when solidified, form a substance that dissolves easily in water (not the best material for the production of household items). Magnesium oxide, aluminum oxide and boric acid are also added here. As well as a number of substances that prevent the formation of air bubbles in the mass.

After all the components are brought to a certain temperature, a sharp cooling follows - this will prevent the grains of sand from returning to their original form.

glass rainbow

Crushed quartz (sand) in its natural form contains a small admixture of iron, which gives finished goods easy in the future green tint. In order to make the material transparent, selenium is added to it. This substance gives off reddish tones, but when mixed with iron, the glass surface turns colorless. And what is glass of various shades made of, and sometimes not even monophonic, shimmering with all the colors of the rainbow?

To give the material color, metal oxides are added to the heated mixture. Cobalt will give rich blue colors. The product will sparkle with purple hues if manganese is added during the manufacturing process, and green will be obtained from a mixture of chromium and iron. Chromium oxide is suitable for sunny yellow, chromium and copper oxides are suitable for emerald green. Which components are added depends on the purpose of the glass plant.

The secret of strength

The next process after staining is the crystallization of the mixture. It is otherwise called the homogenizing process. As a result, all air bubbles, streaks and other inconsistencies that may further affect the quality of products are removed.

After homogenization, the future glass is delivered to a tank with molten tin at a temperature of about 1000 degrees C. Since tin has a higher density, the liquid glass mass is on its surface. Where it becomes perfectly smooth, it cools a little, acquiring hardness. At the next stage, the mass, which has cooled in the tank to 600 degrees C, is transferred to a roller conveyor. Here, based on the rules of how glass is made with a high level of quality, it is until the temperature drops to 250 degrees C. The duration of the process is explained by the need for uniform gradual cooling, in order to avoid premature cracks.

Unique waste-free production

At the end of the conveyor, a device is installed that controls the quality of the finished material, and at the slightest flaw, the glass is sent for remelting with a new prepared mixture. After passing the quality control, finished sheets are cut desired format and sent either to the warehouse or for further processing. It all depends on the purpose of the product.

The residues after cutting are again put into the mixture for remelting. All rejected material is also launched there. Based on how glass is made, it is safe to say that this production is waste-free.

Kinds

Due to their chemical and physical properties glass is divided according to several criteria:

• by purpose (household needs, industrial use, construction);
• by type of processing (chemical, mechanical and special technologies);
• according to the surface texture (matte, glossy, coated with various metals, with and without a film coating).

There is no clear division into categories. When classifying, they proceed from the technology and how glass is made. The end result can be a multi-layer surface with machined edges or a product with a high level of light transmission, cold-cut. It should be noted that a separate quality parameter is the level of light transmission. There is no glass with a 100% level, for domestic use it is 82%. In high-tech products: microscopes, telescopes, various lenses and precision instruments - this figure is over 90%.

In the last 10 years, glass industry products have been in high demand. Souvenir products, furniture, window and door components, dishes, various containers, etc. are made from glass. However, in order for the manufactured goods to find their consumer, it is necessary to correctly select the production technology and control the accuracy of its execution at all stages of the process. Another nuance is significant capital investments at the start, amounting to more than 100 million rubles only for the purchase of equipment. For this reason, many entrepreneurs are abandoning full-scale glass production in favor of recycling the material, which is also a profitable, but less costly field of activity at the initial stage.

Features of the Russian market

Glass industry leaders Russian Federation There are 11 plants, the largest of which are: JSC "AGC BSZ" (Nizhny Novgorod region), JSC "Saratovstroysteklo" (Saratov region), JSC "Salavatsteklo" (Bashkortostan), LLC "AGC Flat Glass Clean", LLC "Pilkington Glass" (Moscow region). It is these enterprises that produce 90% of domestic sheet glass. Moreover, only 30% of the volume of glass products on the market comes from abroad.

Glass production consumes 21% of raw materials, about 8% of fuel, 13% electrical energy of the total industrial volume of the Russian Federation.

Glass types

Depending on the industry that the company is going to serve, it is possible to set up the production of various types of glass. Among the most requested modifications:

• quartz glass. The most common and easy to manufacture type of material based on quartz sand. Products made from it have heat resistance, transparency, but at the same time they are quite fragile. Such glass is used, for example, for the manufacture of flasks and other laboratory glassware.
• lime. An inexpensive material to manufacture, which is used for the manufacture of glass containers, sheet glass and electric lamps.
• Lead. Silica and lead oxide are added to the composition of the glass mass. It is used in the production of crystal and elements of radio components.
• Colored glass. It can be body dyed, drawn, rolled, patterned, smooth and two-layer. It is used as a facing material, for decorative glazing, making stained-glass windows.
• energy saving(K-, I-, E-, I-glass). It is produced by applying a thin, invisible coating with high thermal conductivity to the glass surface. Thanks to this, about 70% of the heat coming from heating devices is retained in the room.
• Reinforced glass. It is used for glazing window structures and partitions in industrial premises. In the thickness of the glass there is a metal mesh, thanks to which, in case of fire or mechanical damage, the structure does not shatter into fragments, but breaks off along the cut line.
• tinted. Used for sun protection. It is produced by adding metal oxides of a given shade to the glass mass.
• sun protection glass. The appropriate coating is applied by spraying. Penetrating into the thickness of the glass, metal oxides give the surface additional strength and resistance to external influences.
• Strained glass. The material is obtained by heat treatment. After gradual heating and subsequent cooling, the glass acquires mechanical strength, which allows it to be used, for example, in the automotive industry.
• multilayer (Triplex). Contains several layers glued together with transparent polymers. It has a high resistance to the formation of through holes, good sound insulation, does not shatter into fragments upon impact. It is used most often as a windshield in cars and in the production of double-glazed windows.
• Milled. Ordinary glass is heated and given a given shape. As a result, a wide variety of products of a complex, for example, curved, configuration are obtained.
• Armored. Multi-layer construction of several M1 glasses and polymeric photocurable composition. It can be film and filmless. Reliably protects against bullets in accordance with the bullet resistance class - B1, B2, B3, B4, B5.
• fireproof glass. Little is produced in Russia. Contains reinforcement that holds glass cracked in a fire in place, thereby preventing the spread of flames.

Glass production equipment

Scroll

The choice of equipment depends on the type of product being produced. In this case, the manufacturer practically does not play a role. Domestic units are not inferior in quality to foreign counterparts. All standard lines have the same set of components:

• Units for the preparation of raw materials. These include machines for separating impurities, in particular magnetic separators that extract metal particles from sand, as well as powerful crushers for grinding ingredients.
• Plants for batch mixing (charge mixers). Components are selected depending on the composition of the final product.
• Weighing equipment. High-precision scales allow you to dose the components correctly.
• Glass melting plants.
• Conveyor equipment. Necessary for transporting ingredients.

You will also need a packaging line and possibly a sandblasting machine.

Equipment for the production of various kinds glass looks quite similar. Installations for the manufacture of automotive glass are considered to be one of the most complex, due to the strict standardization of the final product. There are specific cooling lines, gluing machines, as well as devices for processing products with polymers, which give the surface additional strength.

Glass furnaces

For melting glass, special furnaces with different technological modes are used. This equipment classified according to two criteria.

Classification by technological parameters

In small enterprises for the production of optical, lighting and medical glass, pot furnaces are used. The equipment is designed to produce a small amount of products (1-16 pots are installed in the oven) with high light transmission and uniformity.

Also in the glass industry, bath furnaces of continuous or batch action are often used, having the form of massive rectangular containers. Their design and dimensions may vary. The lines include installations with molten tin, where the glass mass is cooled.

Large-sized bath furnaces are equipped with complexes for automatic control of the burners, which allows you to regulate and evenly distribute pressure, temperature and gas component on the working surface.

Classification according to the principle of heating

According to the principle of heating, plasma and electric furnaces are distinguished. The former work from fuel combustion and have low efficiency, since thermal energy used to heat the charge and boilers.

Electrical equipment makes it possible to produce all existing species glass. Here, glass mass acts as a heating element, which, under the influence of high temperatures, acquires the properties of an electrolyte. The main advantage of the installations is the absence of heat losses with outgoing gases.

There are also combined gas-electric furnaces, where gas heating is used to melt the charge, and the glass mass is heated by means of direct resistance.

What is glass made from?

In accordance with the classical technology, the main raw materials in the production of glass are quartz sand, sodium sulfate, dolomite and limestone. To speed up production processes, the so-called charge is used - specific oxides that promote glass formation. They can be basic or acidic. To give the glass the desired properties, auxiliary “ingredients” are used - manganese, chromium and cobalt dyes, brighteners (saltpeter, arsenic trioxide), etc.

The basic components of the glass mixture are sand (70%), soda and lime (30%). After adding other substances according to technological process, the mass is mixed, melted, cooled and cut into sheets of a given size. Modern production lines are designed for the production of sheet glass with a thickness of 2-50 mm and a size of 5x3 m².

Glass production technology + Video how they do it

Its production is a labor-intensive and painstaking process that requires professional knowledge of technology and large investments. Classic way glass manufacturing is based on the melting of the initial mass, where decolorizers, silencing agents, dyes, amplifiers, etc. are additionally introduced. Then the composition is cooled and cut, based on the specified parameters. At the moment, 2 glass production technologies are popular in the world.

Emil Furko method

The technology is based on vertical machine drawing of the material. The glass mass is melted in a glass melting furnace and drawn out by means of rolling shafts, and then fed into the cooling shaft and cut. Almost finished sheets are subjected to grinding and polishing. The thickness of the products is regulated by changing the drawing speed.

Float method [main]

The technology assumes that the molten glass mass from the furnace is placed on horizontal pallets and fed into a float bath with molten tin and a gas-air atmosphere. Moving along the surface, the future glass takes on a flat shape and is saturated with tin particles. The sheets are then cooled and annealed. The main advantages of the method are high productivity and no need for subsequent processing (grinding, polishing). In addition, this glass has:

• correct geometry, the same thickness throughout the sheet;
• high quality;
• transparency;
• excellent optical properties.

In a similar way, reinforced glass with figured cells is made.

Full video about the whole process of how they do it, including sand preparation:

Additional processing

In this case, we are talking about applying paintwork materials to the side of the glass that did not come into contact with molten tin. The technology finds application in creating non-standard design solutions.

Due to the high cost of equipment and high complexity production process, many entrepreneurs prefer the secondary business of glass processing or the manufacture of certain products - souvenirs, mirrors, glass furniture, double-glazed windows, various decorative products.

Mirror production technology

The mirror surface is obtained by decorative processing of sheet glass. Along the edge of the workpiece, facets are made with a width of 4-30 mm and an angle of inclination to the front surface of 5-30°.

Then, a reflective layer of silver 0.15-0.3 µm thick is applied to the back side and coated with a copper-based film for electrochemical protection of the silver layer. The process is completed by applying paints and varnishes that prevent mechanical damage to the surface. Epoxy enamels, polyvinyl butyral and nitroepoxy compositions can be used as them.

Another way to manufacture mirrors is glass metallization by vacuum evaporation and cathode sputtering.

Colored glass production technology + Video

By appearance and, accordingly, manufacturing technologies distinguish several types of sheet glass: drawn, patterned, smooth, colored in mass, two-layer, made by applying oxide films of a given color.

The basic composition of the material is similar to that used for the manufacture of window sheet glass. Molecular dyes are most often used for staining. Most wanted use products of red, blue, green, purple, blue, milky white, yellow, orange and black.

According to the type of staining, glass can be transparent, muted or marble-like. In the latter case, the effect is achieved by incomplete mixing of the colored glass mass with opaque glass.

Metal oxides, sulfur compounds of iron, lead, cadmium and copper, as well as sulfur and selenium act as dyes. The intensity of the color depends both on the chosen dye and on the properties of the glass itself. By experimenting with several pigments, it is possible to get dozens of color options.

The differences between the production technology of colored glass and the production of ordinary sheet glass lie in the specifics of the melting and molding processes. So, during cooking, it is necessary to pay special attention to the observance of temperature and gas conditions, the algorithm for supplying charge to the furnace and return cullet. A number of coloring components evaporate when heated, respectively, even small deviations from the technology can cause substandard.

Due to the significant difference in the heat transfer of the outer and inner layers, the former harden faster when cooled. Thus, the thinner the tape, the more evenly it cools. That is why the vertical boat drawing method is not used for the production of thickened sheet glass.

The melting of colored glass is carried out in glass melting furnaces with a capacity of 2-15 tons per day with a pool of shallow depth (300-700 mm). The cooking mode is set according to the type and composition of the glass, as well as the properties of the additives used. Some time ago, the melting of colored glasses began to be carried out in direct heating furnaces without recuperators and regenerators.

Requirements for production facilities

Today, glass production with a capacity of about 600 or more tons of products per day is considered the most profitable. Accordingly, the location of the plant should be selected taking into account the presence of nearby deposits of quartz sand and glass batch components, places of compact residence of the population and road, including railway interchanges.

The technological cycle allows the introduction of railway tracks on the territory of the enterprise, respectively, the presence of open combustible structures, coatings and ceilings in the structures should be excluded, and the width of the access roads should be sufficient for the supply of fire engines.

Structures where glass production is carried out directly belong to category G in relation to fire safety, the rest of the buildings - to category D.

According to current sanitary standards, glass production belongs to class III and must be separated by a 300 m wide sanitary protection zone. Also, a filtration system must be installed at the enterprise Wastewater and air filters.

Each building at the enterprise must be connected to water supply, sewerage, power supply, heat supply, gas supply, flow ventilation.

The type and number of storeys of structures depend on the composition, type, quantity and dimensions of production equipment. As a rule, we are talking about one-story multi-span buildings with a grid of columns 30x12 and 36x12 m, 14.4 and 16.5 m high. The frame of the buildings is made of prefabricated reinforced concrete or steel supporting structures.

Trends in the development of glass production

Modern glass production is developing in three main areas: improving working conditions, automating processes and focusing on the production of "green" products.

To solve the tasks set, new technologies are being developed and introduced, including advanced developments in the IT industry, active modernization of existing production facilities, special programs are being introduced that provide for a reduction in the working day, employee insurance, and the installation of efficient ventilation equipment.

Enterprises seek to compensate for the harm caused to the environment in the process of glass melting through the active use of recycled materials.

Glass production began at least as early as the third millennium BC, as evidenced by glass particles found in Mesopotamia. Glassmaking, once a rare art, has become a mainstream industry, with products made from glass being used in both commercial and domestic applications, as glass containers, insulating material, reinforcing fibers, lenses, and arts and crafts. Although the materials used to make glass may vary, the basic process of how glass is made remains the same and is described below.

Get enough silica sand. Also called silica sand, siliceous sand is the main ingredient in glass making. Iron-free glass is used to make clear glass, since iron, when present, makes the glass greenish. If you cannot find sand without iron impurities, then the tint effect can be eliminated by adding a small amount of manganese dioxide.

Add sodium carbonate and calcium oxide to the sand. Sodium carbonate (or soda) lowers the temperature needed to make glass in industrial scale. However, it allows water to penetrate the glass, so sodium carbonate or calcium hydroxide is added to neutralize this property. Magnesium and/or aluminum oxide may also be added to make the glass stronger. As a rule, these additives form no more than 26-30 percent of the glass mixture.

To improve the quality of glass, add other chemical elements according to the purpose of its use. The most common additive for the production decorative glass is an oxide of lead that imparts a sheen to transparent glass products, as well as plasticity, which makes the process of cutting glass easier, and, in addition, reduces the melting point. Spectacle lenses may contain lanthanum oxide, due to its refractive properties, while iron helps the glass absorb heat.

Crystal can contain up to 33 percent lead oxide; however, the more lead oxide, the more skill is required to shape the molten glass, so many crystal makers opt for less lead in the glass.

If you need to make glass of a certain color, add chemicals to it. As mentioned above, iron impurities in quartz sand give the glass a greenish tint, so iron oxide, like copper oxide, is added to increase the green tint. Sulfur compounds impart a yellowish, amber, brownish, or even blackish tint to glass, depending on how much carbon or iron is added to the mixture.

Place the mixture in a good heat-resistant crucible or container.

Melt the mixture until liquid. For the manufacture of industrial quartz glass, melting is carried out in a gas furnace, while special glass can be produced using an electric melting furnace, a kettle furnace, or a roasting furnace.

Quartz sand without additives turns into glass at a temperature of 2,300 degrees Celsius (4,174 degrees Fahrenheit). When sodium carbonate (soda) is added, the temperature is reduced to the required level for making glass, up to 1,500 degrees Celsius (2,732 degrees Fahrenheit).

Remove bubbles and ensure homogeneity of the molten glass mass. This means stirring the mixture until it becomes thick and adding chemicals such as sodium sulfate, sodium chloride or antimony trioxide.

Molten glass shape. Glass shaping can be done in one of several ways: molten glass is poured into a mold and cooled in it. This method was used by the Egyptians and is now used to make lenses.

Much of the molten glass may accumulate at the end of a hollow tube, which is then blown into with air while simultaneously rotating the tube. The shape of the glass is given with the help of air that enters through the tube, the force of gravity attracts the molten glass to itself and the glassblower uses various tools to work with molten glass.

Molten glass can be poured into a bath of molten tin as a base and pressurized with nitrogen to give the glass its shape and gloss. The glass made using this method is called float glass and it is the same method that has been used to make window panes since the 1950s.

Leave the glass to cool.

To increase the strength of the glass, you need to resort to heat treatment. This process is called firing, and it removes the damage that was formed during the glass cooling process. When this process is completed, the glass can be coated, laminated, or otherwise treated to improve its strength and durability.

Annealing is the next manufacturing process in which polished, shaped glass is placed in an oven heated to at least 600 degrees Celsius (1,112 degrees Fahrenheit) and then quickly cooled (“tempered”) using a strong stream of high-pressure air. . Annealed glass breaks into small pieces at 6,000 psi, while tempered glass breaks into small pieces at no less than 10,000 psi and typically around 24,000 psi. psi

The crushed pieces of old glass can be added to the glass mix before the glass is melted in order to be recycled into new glass. Old glass or "cullet" must first be checked for impurities that can weaken the properties of new glass when they enter it.

Components you will need:

• quartz sand (silicon dioxide);
• sodium carbonate (soda);
• calcium oxide (calcium hydroxide);
• other oxides and salts: (for example, magnesium oxide, alumina, iron oxide, magnesium or sodium oxide, or calcium salts as desired);
• lead oxide (optional)
• heat-resistant crucible, shaped or hollow tube;
• kiln or oven for glass This completes the production of glass.