"Golden Age" of the Roman Empire (96-192 AD)

At this time, the ideological attitudes that determined the relationship between government and society changed radically. At the turn of the 1st-2nd centuries. among the Greco-Roman intellectual elite, there is a reassessment of values ​​in relation to the principate as a system of individual power: the philosophical opposition with its criticism of autocracy and associated abuses has been replaced by a theoretical justification of the monarchy as the best form of government, led by a virtuous princeps, who is guided in his activities interests of citizens and considerations of supreme justice. This theory was embodied in four speeches “On Royal Power” by Dion Chrysostom and in the “Panegyric” of Pliny the Younger (100).

Trajan largely corresponded to the image of the ideal princeps created by Greek and Roman intellectuals. He was an extraordinary statesman: a reasonable politician, a capable commander and an experienced administrator, a modest, simple and accessible person, alien to the lust for power, acquisitiveness and passion for pleasure. In his politics, Trajan focused mainly on the Senate, the army and the provincial nobility. The emperor conducted a constructive dialogue with the Senate, putting it legislative activity under the control of its administration.

As a sign of their gratitude, the Senate awarded Trajan the title of "best emperor" (princeps optimus). In 100, Pliny the Younger, on behalf of the senators, addressed the emperor with the following words: “We love you as much as you deserve, and we love you not out of love for you, but out of love for ourselves.”

The army was obedient and effective tool Irinceps politics. Trajan paid considerable attention to the life of the provinces, strictly controlling the activities of the governors. Many noble provincials under him were included in the Senate 1. This meant that the provinces finally ceased to be objects of plunder by the imperial authorities and became organic components of the Roman state. Trajan was in regular correspondence with the governors of the provinces, trying to keep the entire Roman Empire in sight.

Against the background of the economic recovery of the provinces, the decline of the Italian economy was all the more noticeable. To provide effective assistance to the impoverished rural population, the first Antonines created the so-called alimentary system: the state allocated a fund from which loans were issued at 5% per annum for investment in the farm. The interest received was used to pay benefits to orphans and children of the poor (in Rome alone, 5 thousand children of low-income citizens received benefits). In addition, the state paid for their education in primary school. The alimentary system contributed not only to the revival Agriculture Italy, but also the preparation of human reserves for the Roman army.

Stabilization of internal political and economic situation empire created the preconditions for an active foreign policy. Trajan increased the number of legions to 30. During the military campaigns of 101-103 and 105-107. a huge Roman army led by the emperor himself conquered the strong Dacian kingdom of Decebalus. Defeated in battle, Decebalus committed suicide, the Romans captured the capital of the Dacians, the city of Sarmisegetusa, Dacia became a Roman province (107). The conquest of Dacia, with its fertile soils, gold mines and natural salt reserves, was the most important foreign policy action of Trajan, both from an economic and military-strategic point of view. The huge booty allowed the emperor to make generous payments and distributions to the Praetorians, the army and the plebs, organize grandiose spectacles in Rome that lasted 123 days, baiting and gladiator fights, and also launch active construction: the magnificent Baths of Trajan, a new water supply system and the luxurious Trajan Forum were built from 40 -meter-high column topped with a statue of the emperor.

In 106, the Romans conquered the Nabatean kingdom and turned it into the province of Arabia. Then Trajan began to prepare for war with Parthia: the emperor wanted to oust the Parthians from Mesopotamia and subjugate Armenia. Having set out on a campaign in the fall of 113, Trajan occupied Armenia the following year and turned it into a province. In 115-116 he defeated the troops of the Parthian king Vologeses III (105-147), captured its capital Ctesiphon and conquered all of Mesopotamia right up to the coast of the Persian Gulf. Trajan placed his protege on the Parthian throne Partama-spata (116). However, extended communications, dissatisfaction of the local population with the Roman occupation and serious unrest in the eastern provinces forced Trajan to withdraw his legions beyond the Euphrates. Huge material costs were in vain: the newly conquered lands in the East could not be retained. On the way to Italy, in Cilicia, 64-year-old Trajan fell ill and died in August 117. Like his predecessor, he was deified. Despite the failure eastern expedition 114-117 gg., the Romans retained a good memory of Trajan: since then it has become a custom in Rome to wish the new emperor “to be happier than Augustus and better than Trajan.”

The heir of the childless Trajan was his cousin and adopted son, 41-year-old Publius Aelius Hadrian (117-138). He became a worthy successor to the “best princeps”: an intelligent and educated man, a brilliant administrator and experienced military man, an energetic and far-sighted politician, the new emperor was at the height of his understanding of the tasks facing him. In particular, realizing the futility of the policy of conquest in the East and the complete depletion of state resources, Hadrian concluded a peace treaty with Parthia on the terms of restoration status quo(the border was fixed along the Euphrates) and began the construction of a powerful defensive line on the eastern borders of the empire. Thanks to the measures taken, peace with Parthia was maintained for 44 years. As the emperor’s biographer wrote, “under Hadrian there were no major military campaigns at all; wars also ended almost without noise. He was very loved by the soldiers for his exceptional care for the army and for the fact that he was very generous towards them. He was always on friendly terms with the Parthians, because he removed from them the king whom Trajan had given them. He allowed the Armenians to have their own king, whereas under Trajan they had a Roman legate. He did not demand tribute from the inhabitants of Mesopotamia, which Trajan imposed on them. He had loyal friends in the Albanians and Iberians, since he generously endowed their kings, although they refused to come to visit him.”

Having completed his affairs in the East, Adrian took up the similar arrangement of the borders of the empire in Europe and Africa. Grandiose work began everywhere on the construction of border fortifications, called limes. The Roman limes was a system of small fortresses, forts and field camps, between which a ditch was dug and a rampart was built, fortified with a wall or palisade (behind them there was a road for the rapid transfer of troops). The large-scale construction of defensive fortifications on the border meant the empire's final abandonment of the policy of territorial expansion and the transition to strategic defense on all frontiers. Adrian took care of maintaining the army in a state of constant combat readiness. He authorized the replenishment of the legions from provincials who did not have Roman or Latin citizenship, since the number of volunteers from among Roman citizens was continuously declining. Thus, the basis was created for the barbarization of the Roman military machine, which over time entailed serious socio-political consequences.

Hadrian implemented a number of measures aimed at strengthening the imperial system of government. He reorganized the princeps council, which included senior officials, heads of departments and prominent lawyers. The number of departments themselves that received state status increased: instead of freedmen, they were now headed by horsemen. From now on, all managers each had their own rank, according to the state, and were on salary (i.e., they became officials). The administration of the provinces was organized in a similar way. The emperor exercised constant control over the activities of the governors. From time to time, curators visited the provinces with inspections ( curators) from Rome. In 118, Hadrian forgave 16 years of arrears totaling 980 million sesterces. He established a state post office and eliminated the tax farming system, developed the alimentary system (in particular, the emperor increased the amount of child benefits) and took a number of effective measures to revive Italian agriculture. Finally, he streamlined the legal proceedings: by his order, in 130, the lawyer Publius Salvius Julian 1, based on the praetor’s edicts, developed the so-called Eternal Edict (Edictum peipetuum), published on behalf of Adrian himself. Since then, judicial law-making has become the exclusive prerogative of the emperor.

Hadrian traveled often and built a lot (especially in Greece). A passionate admirer of Greek culture, an intellectual and an esthete, he became famous for his love of art and refined taste, leaving to his descendants a magnificent architectural ensemble of a villa in Tibure (modern Tivoli) with an area of ​​about 300 hectares, a grandiose temple of Venus and Roma, the famous Roman Pantheon and others structures. Adrian did a lot for the development of city life. One of the few bursts of socio-political tension during his reign was the uprising in Judea led by Simon Bar Kochba 1 (132-135). Towards the end of his life, suffering from a serious illness, Adrian executed several senators without trial, thereby incurring universal hatred.

In July 138, the 62-year-old emperor died and was buried in a huge round mausoleum (now Castel Sant'Angelo in Rome). Hadrian, like Nerva and Trajan, was childless. He was replaced on the throne by his adopted 52-year-old Antoninus Pius (138-161), who gave the name to the entire dynasty. He obtained from the Senate the deification of the late Hadrian 1, for which he received an agnomen Pius("Pious"). The biographer of Antonin Pius wrote about him: “He stood out for his appearance, was famous for his good morals, was distinguished by his noble mercy, had a calm expression on his face, possessed extraordinary talents, brilliant eloquence, had an excellent knowledge of literature; was sober; took care that the fields were cultivated well; he was gentle, generous, did not encroach on the property of others; with all this, he had a good sense of proportion and the absence of any vanity. He was very merciful by nature and did not commit a single cruel act during his reign.”

Having inherited a state in a state of prosperity and stability from his adoptive father, Antoninus Pius continued the policies of his predecessor and succeeded in this. During the reign of the noble and humane princeps, the Romans for a long time forgot what arbitrariness and abuse of power meant. This was a rare period of relative prosperity and prosperity for the empire. The policy of “bread and circuses” continued with regard to the plebs. The emperor issued a number of decrees that regulated the relationship between slaves and their masters: in particular, from now on the master was responsible for the murder of a slave or cruel treatment of him; the law provided for slaves the opportunity to engage in commerce, have a family and enter into business relationship with the gentlemen. Adhering to a peaceful policy, Antonin Pius was nevertheless forced to fight a lot: his legates defeated the British and Moors, Germans and Dacians, suppressed unrest in the provinces and repelled the raids of barbarians. The meek and virtuous emperor died in March 161 at the age of 75, transferring power to his adopted co-rulers, the 40-year-old Marcus Aurelius (161-180) and 30 year old Lucius Vera (16-169). The latter led a riotous lifestyle and did not take part in the administration of the empire.

A sophisticated intellectual, a well-educated admirer of Stoic philosophy, Marcus Aurelius went down in history as a philosopher on the throne. He left behind a philosophical work, “To Myself,” written in Greek. In this work, Marcus Aurelius wrote: “Always zealously take care that the work in which you are currently occupied is carried out in a manner worthy of a Roman and a husband, with full and sincere cordiality, with love for people, with freedom and justice; and also about removing all other ideas from oneself. You will succeed if you perform every task as if it were the last in your life, free from all recklessness, from disregard for the conditions of reason caused by passions, from hypocrisy and dissatisfaction with your fate. You see how few requirements, having fulfilled which, everyone can live a blessed and divine life. And the gods themselves will not demand anything more from the one who fulfills these requirements. The time of human life is a moment; its essence is eternal flow; feeling - vague; the structure of the whole body is perishable; soul is unstable; fate is mysterious; fame is unreliable. In a word, everything related to the body is like a stream, everything related to the soul is like a dream and smoke. Life is a struggle and a journey through a foreign land; posthumous glory is oblivion.”

Marcus Aurelius was a man of duty, moral and modest; Above all, he put the interests of the state and was fully aware of his responsibility for the fate of the empire. Under him, the quantitative and qualitative growth of the imperial bureaucracy continued. The emperor himself was actively involved in legal proceedings. His relations with the senatorial and equestrian classes were ideal. Marcus Aurelius introduced many noble provincials into the Senate, especially of Eastern and African origin. The philosopher-emperor, like his predecessors, pleased the capital's plebs with spectacles and grain distributions, preserved the alimentary system and, on the whole, quite successfully ensured internal political stability. The legates of Marcus Aurelius easily suppressed the uprisings in Britain and Egypt, and when in 175 the best commander of the empire, Gaius Avidius Cassius, raised a rebellion in the East, the emperor responded to this event with a characteristic phrase: “We do not live so badly that he can win." Soon Cassius was killed by his own soldiers, and the rebellion ended. During the 19 years of his reign, not a single conspiracy was organized against Marcus Aurelius.

At the same time, the peace-loving and humane emperor had to fight difficult wars that threatened the empire with major troubles. In 161-165. the war with the Parthians continued with varying success who invaded Armenia and Syria. Having driven out the Parthians from there, the Roman legions occupied a significant part of Mesopotamia, but were unable to gain a foothold in it and were forced to retreat. Nevertheless, in 166, Roman diplomats managed to conclude a profitable peace treaty with Parthia, according to which Northern Mesopotamia became part of the empire, and Armenia entered the sphere of Roman influence.

In 167, taking advantage of the difficult situation of Rome in connection with the Parthian War, the plague epidemic and crop failures in Italy, the German tribes of the Quadi and Marcomanni, who belonged to the Suebi confederation, as well as the Sarmatians, broke through the Rhei-Danubian border and invaded Northern Italy (First Marcomannic War, 167-175). To save Italy, the Senate, as during the war with Hannibal, took extraordinary measures: even robbers, slaves and gladiators were mobilized into the army, and Marcus Aurelius himself sold off part of the imperial property in order to obtain funds to equip the troops. In 169, the Romans drove the barbarians out of Italy. Subsequently, the Roman legions cleared the Danube provinces of the enemy and crossed the Danube 1. In 175, a peace was concluded, according to which the Germanic and Sarmatian tribes came under Roman protectorate. However, the barbarians soon resumed their raids. In 177, Marcus Aurelius was forced to start the Second Marcomannic War (177-180). The onslaught of the barbarians was repelled, and the situation on the border stabilized. In March 180, at the age of 59, Marcus Aurelius died of the plague in Vindobona (modern Vienna). In Rome, a column was erected in honor of the emperor, topped with his statue.

Marcus Aurelius was succeeded by his 18-year-old son Commodus (ISO-192), the last representative of the Antonine dynasty. He was a rude, cruel and voluptuous despot. After the death of his father, Commodus concluded a peace treaty with the Quadi and Marcomanni, after which he immediately departed for Rome, where he entrusted the management of the state to his greedy minions, and he himself indulged in wild revelry, drunkenness and debauchery. Having executed his wife, he started a harem for himself. Distinguished by his extraordinary physical strength and strong physique, the emperor proclaimed himself the “Invincible Roman Hercules,” appeared in public in the skin of a lion and with a club on his shoulder, personally participated in the persecution of wild animals, killing lions and elephants with his own hands, and performed in the amphitheater arena as a gladiator. Completely distraught, Commodus renamed all the months of the calendar in his honor and even named Rome “the city of Commodus” (190). His biographer wrote about Commodus: “Drinking until dawn and wasting the funds of the Roman Empire, in the evenings he wandered around taverns and houses of debauchery. To govern the provinces, he sent either accomplices of his shameful adventures, or people recommended by these accomplices. He became so hated by the Senate that he himself, in turn, began to cruelly rage towards the destruction of this great class and turned from despicable to terrible.”

"Golden Age" of the Empire. After the cruel despot emperors, a peaceful dynasty reigned in Rome for a long time Antoninov, leaving behind a good memory. The reign of the Antonines is called "golden age" Empire, this “century” occupies almost the entire second century of the new era. The most famous emperors of the “Golden Age” were the commander Trajan and philosopher Marcus Aurelius.

In the II century. AD The Empire enjoyed internal peace. The Antonine emperors did not wage wars of conquest, but firmly guarded the main borders of the Roman Empire, which ran along the rivers Euphrates, Danube and Rhine. Beyond the Euphrates stretched the great Parthian kingdom (former Persia); on the banks of the Danube in present-day Romania arose a kingdom of warlike Dacians; The Rhine separated Roman Gaul from the wild Germanic tribes. More than once, border wars broke out in these areas, during which Roman legions invaded enemy territory.

Under the Antonines, normal relations were established between the emperors and the Senate, executions and persecutions stopped, and people were able to freely express their thoughts. The historian Tacitus, who lived to this time, wrote: “The years of rare happiness have come, when everyone can think what they want and say what they think.”

Under the Antonines, the position of the provinces changed: they gradually began to have equal rights with Italy. Many provincials became Roman citizens, the most noble of them entered the Roman Senate. Greek writer of the 2nd century. Aelius Aristides said, addressing the Romans: “With you, everything is open to everyone. Anyone who is worthy public office, ceases to be considered a foreigner. The name of the Roman became the property of all cultural humanity. You have established the management of the world as if it were one family.” Soon after the Antonine dynasty was interrupted, the unity of the Roman state, carried out under its rule, was completed: in 212 AD By the edict of Emperor Caracalla, the entire population of the Empire received Roman citizenship.

Trajan. Marcus Ulpius Trajan reigned at the beginning of the Antonine dynasty. He was born into a noble Roman family living in Spain. From a young age, Trajan served in the army and, under the leadership of his father, went from a subordinate officer to the commander of the Rhine legions. When he was 45 years old, the old Emperor Nerva adopted him, seeing in him the most worthy citizen and successor to his power. In 98 AD. Trajan became emperor.

The new head of the Roman state had outstanding qualities as a warrior: he was very strong, had excellent command of weapons, fought wild animals in the forest without fear, and loved to swim in stormy seas.

He always ate simple soldier's food and walked ahead of the army during the campaign. Combined with these courageous qualities were modesty, justice, a sober mind, and a cheerful disposition.

When Trajan became emperor, his personal life and habits changed little. He walked around Rome on foot and was available to petitioners. He was not afraid of the conspirators, and he completely destroyed the denunciations by not paying attention to them. He said that he wanted to be the kind of ruler he would want for himself if he remained a simple subject. Handing the sword to the chief of the palace guard, he solemnly proclaimed: “Take this sword to use it for my protection if I rule well, and to use it against me if I rule badly.” The Senate officially recognized Trajan as the best emperor. Subsequently, when the rulers of Rome ascended the throne, they wanted to be happier than Augustus and better than Trajan.

During the reign of Trajan, great wars were fought on the Euphrates and Danube. In two campaigns, the emperor defeated the Dacian kingdom, which threatened the northern border of the Empire, and brought Roman settlers to the left bank of the Danube. In memory of these victories, the majestic Trajan's Column was erected in Rome, decorated with reliefs depicting the Dacian War.

The campaign across the Euphrates against the Parthians ended with the capture of the Parthian capital. The Romans reached the shores of the Persian Gulf, but uprisings that broke out in the rear forced Trajan to withdraw the legions back. On his way back home he suddenly fell ill and died (117 AD).

Marcus Aurelius. The reign of Marcus Aurelius ended the “golden age” of the Empire.

For a long time, outstanding thinkers dreamed of seeing a sage, a “philosopher on the throne,” at the head of the state. Marcus Aurelius proved to be the embodiment of this ideal: he was an emperor and a famous Stoic philosopher. He began studying science at the age of 12 and continued these studies throughout his life. He left behind a large philosophical work in Greek called “To Myself.” It expresses the emperor’s most sincere thoughts about life, about the soul, about duty.

Marcus Aurelius' worldview was rather gloomy. The time of human life, he wrote, is one moment, the body is mortal, fate is incomprehensible; life is struggle and wandering in a foreign land, posthumous glory is oblivion. Despite such thoughts, Marcus Aurelius instructed himself in cheerfulness. He believed that the divine principle residing in our soul tells us to live in harmony with nature, fulfilling all the demands of life. The main thing is love for people and fulfilling your duty to them.

Marcus Aurelius lived in full accordance with his rules. He was burdened by imperial power, but conscientiously and well fulfilled all the duties of a ruler, even such a difficult matter as commanding an army. He was friendly and fair with strangers, and he respected and loved his loved ones. With amazing patience he endured the bad temper of his beautiful wife and her constant infidelities. His facial expression was always calm.

Under Marcus Aurelius, numerous troubles befell the Empire, foreshadowing the end of prosperous times: the Moors attacked the southern borders, the Parthians attacked the eastern ones, the Germans and Sarmatians crossed the Danube. To top off the misfortunes, a plague epidemic swept across the Empire.

The emperor personally led the army in two large and victorious wars on the Danube against the Germans and Sarmatians. Here the plague overtook him. In 180 AD. the last worthy emperor of the Antonine dynasty died of an epidemic in the military camp of Vindobone (modern Vienna). His son, who resumed the bad customs of the despot emperors, reigned for 12 years and became a victim of a palace conspiracy. His atrocities and death ended the almost hundred-year happy era of the Antonines.

In Rome, two monuments to Marcus Aurelius have been preserved: a magnificent equestrian statue of the emperor and a column erected in honor of his victory over the Sarmatians and Germans:

The rise of imperial cities in the 2nd century. AD IN Western countries- Spain, France, Germany, Britain - you can often see Roman buildings dilapidated by time, but still majestic: temples, amphitheatres, arches, ramparts. Some Roman roads and water pipelines still serve people today. Most of these structures date back to the Antonine century. It was in the II century. AD the cities of the Roman provinces, both western and eastern, multiplied in number and were improved. Their forums were cleared of trading shops, turning into ceremonial squares decorated with temples, basilicas (court buildings), and statues. Colonnaded streets appeared - avenues, on both sides of which there were columns that supported the roofs over the pedestrian paths. Triumphal arches were often placed at the beginning and end of these streets. Many cities along the Rhine and Danube arose on the site of Roman military camps - from them came such famous modern capitals as Bonn, Vienna, Budapest. Gradually they became Romanized, i.e. turned into Roman-type cities, settlements of Western native tribes; for example, the center of the Gallic tribe of Parisians became a city with the Latin name Lutetia, and later received the name Paris. The lands around the Romanized cities were covered with olive orchards and vineyards. The once wild countries of Gaul and Spain began to trade their own wine and olive oil. Aelius Aristides, mentioned above, wrote: “In our time, all cities compete with each other in beauty and attractiveness. Everywhere there are many squares, water pipes, ceremonial portals, temples, craft workshops, and schools. Cities shine with splendor and beauty, and the whole earth blooms like a garden...”

Aqueducts. Among the architectural monuments of the Empire, water pipelines make a particularly great impression - aqueducts. They stand in low-lying areas where water supply gutters, in order to maintain a uniform level above the ground, were raised to high, powerful arcades stretching for tens of kilometers.

Pont du Gard is the highest surviving ancient Roman aqueduct:

length 275 meters, height 47 meters.

The largest aqueduct in the world, the Carthage aqueduct (2nd century AD), has a length of 132 km, the height of its two-tier arcade reaches 40 m. The aqueduct in the Spanish city of Segovia (2nd century AD) is still in operation. Throughout the Empire, about 100 cities were supplied with water using aqueducts.

Baths. Aqueducts carried water to public baths, or baths, spread throughout the Empire from Britain to the Euphrates. The Romans borrowed the idea of ​​the Greek gymnasium, adding bathhouses to parks and sports fields. The baths themselves consisted of three compartments with cold, warm and hot water. They were heated by hollow ceramic pipes through which hot steam passed. In general, the baths included swimming pools, rooms for relaxation and conversation, libraries, jogging tracks, sports grounds, flower beds. The imperial baths, built as a gift to the Roman people, were distinguished by their enormous size and luxury. They were visited by the urban middle class and the poor. Noble and rich people preferred small home baths. The most famous baths of the 2nd century. AD There were the baths of Trajan in Rome.

Limes. The Roman border fortifications, called limes (limes translated from Latin - “boundary”, “border”). A well-fortified limes was an earthen rampart or stone wall hundreds of kilometers long. Sometimes they dug another ditch in front of the rampart and erected a palisade. Along the rampart, not far from each other, there were towers with guard detachments. Several towers stood fortresses adjacent to the rampart. In the rear of these fortifications there was a large legionary camp, connected to them by military roads. Simpler limeses consisted of only fortifications connected convenient ways. The remains of limes are clearly visible in Britain, on the Rhine, and on the Danube. Part of the Trajan Wall passes through the territory of Moldavia, which was part of the Dacian kingdom. The powerful Antonine Wall remains in the north of England.

Reconstructed Limes in Welzheim

Famous buildings of Rome. In the II century. world-famous structures were erected in Rome - these are Pantheon And Trajan Forum. The Pantheon, the temple of all the gods, is a round building covered by a huge dome (one of the largest in the world). Unlike Greek temples, the Pantheon does not look like the house of God, but like a circle of lands, shaded by the vault of heaven. From a hole in the ceiling, a stream of light pours into the center of the temple, scattering around the edges of the vast interior space. The contrast of light and twilight creates a mysterious, prayerful mood.

Trajan's Forum was built in memory of the emperor's victory over the Dacians. Through the triumphal arch, the visitor entered a wide square, in the center of which stood an equestrian statue of the emperor. In the distance, behind the statue, a luxurious marble and granite basilica rose on a high pedestal; above its gilded roof the top of the triumphal column standing behind it could be seen. Having climbed the steps and passed through the basilica, full of gray and golden columns, the traveler found himself on the second, semicircular square. On its sides stood libraries for Latin and Greek manuscripts, and between them rose a column entwined, like a ribbon, with painted reliefs depicting military scenes. The ashes of Trajan were immured in the pedestal of the column; in ancient times, on top of it stood a statue of the emperor.

The Trajan Forum and the Pantheon were built by the brilliant Greek architect Apollodorus of Damascus. Both buildings expressed the bright spirit of both Greek art and the time in which they were created.

Trajan's Forum

Western and eastern provinces. Although the huge Roman Empire was a single state, an invisible border between the eastern and western Provinces seemed to run along it. The East spoke Greek, built structures of stone, and preserved ancient Greek and Greco-Eastern culture. The West adopted the Latin language, Roman culture and Roman Construction Materials- concrete and baked brick. The Greeks, becoming Roman citizens, continued to consider themselves Greeks. The Spanish and Gauls, who spoke Latin, considered themselves Romans. Nowadays these peoples speak Romance languages, descended from Latin.

Gallic martyrs. In the middle of the 2nd century. AD the war between the Empire and the Christian Church subsided. At this time, the Christian religion, having conquered the cities, penetrated into schools, into the palaces of senators, and into the army. But at the beginning and at the end of the “golden age”, under Trajan and Marcus Aurelius, Christians were persecuted in Rome and the provinces. Particularly severe persecution broke out in Gaul during the time of Marcus Aurelius.

In the Gallic city of Lugdunum (Lyon) and in the neighboring city of Vienna, the pagan population persecuted Christians for a long time, expelling them from all public places- from baths, markets, squares; they were mistaken for people committing secret crimes. Finally, a pogrom broke out: Christians were grabbed, beaten, and dragged to a trial before the city authorities. The mayor of the city, conducting an interrogation, ordered the confessors of the faith to be thrown into prison. There were so many prisoners that they died in the dungeons from the stuffiness, but only 10 people renounced their faith in Christ. Those who persisted were subjected to torture: they were scourged, their legs were stretched, and they were placed on a hot metal chair. The martyrs, enduring all the suffering, continued to repeat: I am a Christian. The women showed amazing firmness, especially the young, fragile slave Blandina; her body turned into a continuous wound, even the executioners were tired of the torture, and she, as if not feeling pain, repeated: “I am a Christian, nothing bad is being done here.” The massacre ended in the city amphitheater, where Christians were thrown to be torn to pieces by wild animals or killed in some other way.

The story of the Gallic martyrs is preserved in a letter written by the surviving Christians to their fellow believers in Asia Minor. (see addition to §21)

1. What period is called the golden age of the Roman Empire? The power of the empire is associated with the activities of which emperors?

The Golden Age of the Roman Empire is associated with the reign of five good emperors from the Antonine dynasty, who ruled from 96 to 180. They successively succeeded each other without dynastic crises, while all five actively participated in the management of the empire, personally solving problems that arose. This means:

Mark Koktsey Nerva (96-98):

Marcus Ulpius Trajan (98-117):

Publius Aelius Hadrian (117-138):

Antoninus Pius (138-161):

Marcus Aurelius (161-180).

2. Indicate the economic and political reasons for the crisis of the Roman Empire. How did the economic structure change and social structure Roman society and the rights of its citizens?

Causes of the crisis of the Roman Empire.

The fall in average annual temperatures has led to a crisis in agriculture.

Emperor Septimius Severus changed the system of army control. Before him, the commanders (legates) of the legions were politicians, for whom this position was just a short episode in their career. The soldiers did not consider them theirs. The North introduced the practice of appointing legates of legions from lower-ranking commanders. Soon, people appeared who had spent their entire lives in the army, whom the soldiers trusted and who began to receive top command positions, that is, political weight. It was these people who became the so-called soldier emperors, civil wars between whom tormented the Roman Empire for several decades.

After the good emperors came the reign of several bad ones at the turn of the 2nd-3rd centuries. Some of the emperors who succeeded each other at that time were not at all involved in governing the empire, but only surprised the people with their eccentricities and cruelties.

Civil wars that lasted several decades disrupted economic ties between the provinces, making commercial farms unprofitable, the large latifundia that had flourished before, most farms became subsistence, an economically unified empire under subsistence farming was no longer needed.

For several decades the legions were engaged in war with each other, and not with external enemies. During this time, the wild tribes on the borders of the empire became accustomed to successful campaigns into the empire, which brought rich booty, they explored the routes of such campaigns and were not going to refuse.

- During civil wars All sides were accustomed to using barbarians as mercenaries; after the end of the civil wars, this practice was continued. As a result, the Roman army no longer consisted primarily of Romans, but of barbarians, and at all levels, including senior command positions.

What seemed to people like an endless series of disasters led to a spiritual crisis in the empire, as a result of which new cults gained popularity, the main ones being Mithraism and Christianity.

As a result of civil wars, as mentioned above, subsistence farming prevailed in the Roman Empire. In a subsistence economy, as opposed to a commodity economy, the use of slaves ceased to be effective, and their share in society decreased. Instead, the number of colones increased - dependent people who worked on the owner’s land for part of the harvest (from this institution the serf class later developed). During the crisis, all inhabitants of the empire became Roman citizens. Because of this, citizenship has ceased to be a privilege, as before, it has ceased to carry additional rights, the only responsibilities left are in the form of taxes. And after the deification of the ruler, the citizens finally turned into subjects.

3. Think: what goals were pursued by the administrative reforms of Diocletian and Constantine?

Diocletian and Constantine deified the power of the emperors, hoping to thereby prevent further actions by military commanders (they were unable to achieve this goal). In addition, the new administrative division of the empire into smaller provinces and the transfer of many officials from cash to in-kind allowance (which was easier to deliver to the centers of smaller provinces) responded to the changing economic conditions, the actual transition of the empire to subsistence farming.

4. Fill out the table. What factors do you think played a decisive role in the decline of Rome?

As can be seen from the table, there were more internal reasons for the fall of the Western Roman Empire, they played big role. Rome during the time of good emperors might have been able to withstand the onslaught of the Great Migration; the state, weakened by the crisis, could not cope with this task. On the other hand, it was the barbaric onslaught that led to the aggravation of the crisis and did not give time to overcome it. Therefore, it is truly impossible to separate internal and external reasons; their combination led to the fall of the Western Roman Empire.

5. How was the spiritual crisis of Roman society expressed? Why did the Christian church develop into a cohesive organization that became an influential political and economic force?

The spiritual crisis was expressed in the growing popularity of numerous cults that were non-traditional for Roman society. And we’re not just talking about Christianity and Mithraism; Eastern cults of all kinds flourished in large numbers.

In conditions of a long crisis, all segments of society lacked confidence in the future. Christianity gave this confidence regarding, if not this world, but the future. Because of this, many representatives of the privileged strata of society became Christians. They introduced many elements of the Roman civil order into the Christian Church, which made church life more orderly and gave it structure. The outbreak of persecution of Christians activated this structure and rallied the Christian church, which tried to resist the persecution. Considering that this church united many people from the upper strata of society, it had their capital and political influence, becoming a powerful force in the state.

6. Make a detailed plan for your answer on the topic “The Fall of the Western Roman Empire.”

1. Strengthening the pressure of peoples from the flow of the Great Migration on the borders of the Roman Empire.

2. Allowing the Visigoths to settle on Roman territory.

3. The uprising of the Visigoths in 378 and their successful actions against the Roman troops.

4. The final division of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern after the death of Theodosius the Great in 395.

5. The settlement of new barbarian tribes on Roman territory and their uprisings.

6. Periodic uprisings of Roman generals (over time, increasingly from among the barbarians), their attempts to usurp the throne.

7. The fight against the invasion of the Huns.

8. The rule in the Western Roman Empire was often replaced by weak, often juvenile emperors.

9. Odoacer's coup, the end of the Western Roman Empire.