perception) is a mental cognitive process of reflection in the minds of military personnel of things, objects and phenomena that directly affect their senses as a whole, and not their individual aspects and qualities, as in sensation. V. is one of the important links in the process of mastering knowledge.

Great Definition

Incomplete definition ↓

PERCEPTION

a system for receiving and converting information that provides the body with a reflection of objective reality and orientation in the surrounding world. V., together with sensation, acts as the starting point of the process of cognition, delivering sensory material to it. In the process of cognition, V. is mediated by thinking and verified by practice. Without such mediation and verification, V. can act as a source of both true knowledge and delusion, illusion. Among the processes of V. are the detection of an object in a perceived field; distinction between features of the object; selection in the object of informative content adequate to the purpose of the action, the formation of the image of V.

In the process of V., a person cognizes objects and phenomena as a whole, and not their separate ones. properties. V. is based on sensations, but V. is not reduced to the sum of sensations. Perceiving, a person not only singles out a group of sensations and combines them into a holistic image, but also comprehends this image, understands it, drawing on his past experience for this.

Specialist. V.'s bodies are not present. Materials for V. are given by analyzers. Objects and phenomena of the surrounding world affect decomp. analyzers (visual, smelling, gustatory, etc.), i.e. any object acts as a complex stimulus. V. is provided by a complex system of neural connections between decomp. analyzers.

The presence of such connections allows one to correctly perceive the object and on the basis of the testimony of only one analyzer.

According to modern According to ideas, the totality of V.'s processes provides a subjective biased and, at the same time, an adequate reflection of objective reality. The adequacy of the image of V. is achieved due to the fact that during its formation there is an assimilation (A. N. Leontiev), i.e. adjusting the perceiving systems to the properties of the impact: in the movement of the hand, feeling the object, in the movement of the eye, tracing the visible contour, in the movements of the larynx, reproducing an audible sound, etc. - in all these cases, a copy is created that is comparable to the original. V. is a kind of self-regulating process that has a mechanism feedback and obeying the features of the reflected object.

max. important features V. - objectivity, integrity, structure, constancy and meaningfulness. The objectivity of V. is expressed in the so-called. an act of objectification, i.e. in relation to external world of information received from him. V.'s objectivity is not an innate quality. The formation of objectivity V. in ontogenesis is associated with the first practical. actions of the child, to-rye directed to external. objects and adapted to their features, location and shape. Further V. is allocated in rather independent. system of perceptual actions. The integrity of V. consists in the creation, on the basis of the given sensations, of an integral image of an object or space. objective situation, even if some parts of the whole cannot be observed at the moment. Its structure is connected with V.'s integrity. V. to Means. measure does not correspond to instantaneous sensations and is not a simple sum of them. A person perceives a generalized structure actually abstracted from these sensations, which is formed over a certain time (for example, with V. music, a separate sound does not provide an understanding of the melody, the entire structure of the melody continues to sound in the mind of the listener with a variety of relationships included in it elements). The sources of the integrity and structure of V. lie in the features of the reflected objects themselves, on the one hand, and in the objective activity of a person, on the other. The constancy of V. is the ability of a perceptual system (a system of analyzers that provide this act B.) compensate for spatial and other changes in objects. Due to constancy, a person is able to perceive surrounding objects as relatively constant in shape, size, color, etc. A person’s V. is closely connected with his thinking, this is the meaningfulness of V.

Meaningfully perceive the subject - it means. mentally name it, i.e. attributed to a specific group, class of objects, generalize it in a word. Even at the sight of an unfamiliar object, a person tries to catch in it a resemblance to familiar objects, to attribute it to a certain category. V. represents dynamic. search for the best interpretation, explanation of the available data.

The classification of V., as well as sensations, is based on differences in the analyzers involved in V. In accordance with which analyzer plays the predominant role in V., visual, auditory, tactile, kinesthetic, and smell are distinguished. and taste V. Usually V.'s process is carried out by a number of analyzers. Engine sensations to one degree or another are involved in all types of V. Decl. types of V. are rarely found in their pure form, they are usually combined, resulting in complex types of V. For example, V. by a student of the text includes such types of it as visual, auditory and kinesthetic. Another type of classification of war is based on the forms of existence of matter: space, time, and motion. Accordingly, V. of space, V. of time, and V. of movement are distinguished.

The development of perception and ways of its education. V. is formed in the process of human life, his active relationship with objects and phenomena of the surrounding world. Elementary forms of V. begin to develop very early. Initially, the baby has undifferentiated sensations of otd. properties of stimuli (light, heat, cold, etc.). At the 2nd month of life, distinct orienting reactions appear, expressed in a certain setting of the perceiving organs and complete or partial inhibition of movements. The child listens to sounds and holds his gaze on objects. As a result of multiple combinations of stimuli and their reinforcement, the child begins to develop reactions to complex stimuli and to the relationship of stimuli, on the basis of which V. arises and the child recognizes surrounding objects. So, at the moment of feeding, the child stops his gaze on the face of the mother, listens to her voice, feels the warmth of her hands. These stimuli are associated with each other in a single image of the mother, and the child soon begins to recognize her not only by her appearance, but also by her voice and even by the sounds of her steps. V. in children is initially inextricably linked with their objective actions and movements. Seeing Ph.D. object, the child reaches for it, feels and moves it and, manipulating in this way, traces the contours of the object and its distance with his gaze. parts. In the future, see. irritations gradually begin to isolate themselves from the objective action into independent ones. sees. images, in which the sensations from the movement of the hands are replaced by sensations of the movement of the eyes along the contours and other characteristic points of objects. Thus, the actions of the child with objects underlie the development of V.

A characteristic feature of V. children in doshk. age is its emotional conditioning and at the same time its objective limitations and incompleteness. The child primarily identifies shiny and moving objects, unusual sounds and smells, i.e. everything that causes his emotional and orienting reactions, and at the same time does not notice other, less vivid and emotionally indifferent objects for him. Due to the insufficiency of life experience, the child is not yet able to distinguish in his V. the main and essential aspects of objects and abstract from secondary ones. The incompleteness of life experience also explains the fact that with V. little-known objects or pictures, children are often limited only to listing (naming) otd. objects without a coherent description and explanation of their meaning; the latter becomes possible only with a more complete acquaintance with these subjects. However, contrary to the opinion of the researchers who first noted this fact (A. Binet, V. Stern), there are no strict age features in this regard. It all depends on how close and familiar the perceived objects are to the children. Great difficulties in children cause V. spaces. properties of objects, which can be expressed in an incorrect assessment of the size, shape, and distance of objects, and especially V. depicted in the pictures of perspective and movement. Very inaccurate at this age is also V. time associated with Ch. arr. with their subjective organic sensations, needs for food, sleep, and in the future with the established daily routine. The duration of the time intervals are perceived very inaccurately even by children of 6-7 years.

Speech communication with adults has a great influence on the formation of V.'s images in children. Adults introduce children to the surrounding objects and help to highlight the most. their important features, in connection with which V. in children becomes more and more accurate and complete, and at the same time purposeful. The improvement of V.'s actions (perceptual actions) and the mastery of new types of such actions provide V.'s progressive change with age - the acquisition of greater accuracy, dissection, etc. Systematic work on the formation of these actions in children underlies the so-called. sensory education. Playing, drawing, modeling, designing, etc. are of great importance for the development of art. properties of objects. At normal conditions upbringing a child already at the beginning of school. age is quite correctly oriented in the surrounding objects and knows how to use V. in accordance with his needs and interests.

V.'s further development occurs in children primarily in connection with schooling. Starting from ml. classes, is carried out systematically. work on the development of V., the goal of which is not only the expansion and refinement of children's visual knowledge of objects and phenomena of reality, but also the education of certain skills and abilities of correct V., the development of observation. This is especially facilitated by the visibility of learning, decomp. laboratory works, excursions, observations of natural phenomena and especially directly. participation in feasible labor activity, to-roe in combination with uch. occupations makes V. active cognizant. process. At the same time, the school forms an aesthetic. art assessments. lit ry, painting, sculpture, music, thereby developing the artist. student taste. Means. influence on the development of V. of social reality (the relationship of people, political events, etc.) is exerted by morality. positions and worldview of persons whose opinion is presented to the child as authoritative and significant. V.'s development (especially in the younger grades) requires guidance from teachers and educators.

In ped. activity for the development of V. requires a max, activation of V., so that not only vision and hearing, but also touch, smell, taste, and especially the motor sensations that arise when operating objects participate in it. Of great importance are the modeling of objects, their sketches and schematics. images that allow you to visually capture the features of these objects. For the development of accuracy and generalization of V., it is necessary to compare objects, establish similarities and differences between them. Specialist. polytechnic task. learning lies in the development of V. exact spaces. relationships (distances, sizes, shapes of objects).

In naib. the full development of V. is achieved with proper organization observations in the process of learning. and productions. student work. Definition of tasks, preliminary. the study of objects of observation from books, drawings, photographs, the development of a plan, and, finally, the subsequent description and discussion of the results of observation - all this leads to an organic. V.'s connections with praktich. actions and thinking of students and thus is the most important means of developing their cognition. activities.

Incomplete definition ↓

Perception

Perception, perception(from lat. perception) is a cognitive process that forms a subjective picture of the world. This is a mental process, which consists in the reflection of an object or phenomenon as a whole with its direct impact on the receptor surfaces of the sense organs. Perception is one of the biological mental functions that determine difficult process reception and transformation of information received with the help of the sense organs that form a subjective holistic image of the object that affects the analyzers through a set of sensations initiated by this object. As a form of sensory reflection of an object, perception includes the detection of the object as a whole, the distinction of individual features in the object, the allocation of informative content in it that is adequate to the purpose of the action, the formation of a sensory image.

Perception is much more than the transmission of neural impulses by the nervous system to certain areas of the brain. Perception also involves the subject's awareness of the very fact of stimulation and certain ideas about it, and for this to happen, it is first necessary to feel the "input" of sensory information, that is, to experience a sensation. In other words, perception is the process of comprehending the stimulation of sensory receptors. There is reason to look at perception as a task that consists of focusing on sensory input, analysis, and interpretation in order to create a meaningful representation of the world around us.

Perceptual Properties

• Objectivity - objects are perceived not as an incoherent set of sensations, but as images that make up specific objects.

• Structurality - the object is perceived by consciousness already as a modeled structure abstracted from sensations.

• Apperceptivity - perception is influenced by the general content of the human psyche.

• Constancy - the constancy of perception of the same distal object when the proximal stimulus changes.

• Selectivity - the preferential selection of some objects in comparison with others.

• Meaningfulness - the object is consciously perceived, mentally called (associated with a certain category), belongs to a certain class

1. Selection - selection of the object of perception from the information flow
2. Organization - an object is identified by a set of features
3. Categorizing and attributing to an object the properties of objects of this class

Constancy of perception

Constancy - the constancy of perception of the same distal object when the proximal stimulus changes, the ability to recognize the same object based on different sensory information (sensations). Perceived in different circumstances and conditions, the object is considered as one and the same. So, the brightness of an object as a quantity characterizing the reflected light changes if you move it from a dimly lit room to a room with good lighting. Nevertheless, when the proximal stimulus information changes, the object is considered as the same in both cases. You can highlight the constancy of such object properties as size, shape, brightness, color. The shape perception constancy is studied on an apparatus, the main elements of which are a standard square (with a side of 10 cm) and a measuring rectangle (10 cm wide). The standard square is always inclined towards the observer in the experiment, and the plane of the measuring rectangle must be perpendicular to the subject's line of sight. The height of the measuring rectangle can be changed by the subject using a special button. The subject is asked to choose the height of the measuring rectangle so that it has the same apparent shape as the tilted reference square. In the experiment, the slope of the reference square varies (25°, 30°, 35° and 40°). For each value of the inclination of the standard, the subject trims the height of the meter four times. Thus, data are obtained for calculating the constancy coefficient. Perception constancy is measured by the constancy coefficient according to the Brunswick-Thouless formula:

where is the height of the measuring rectangle, which was set by the subject in an effort to trim the visible forms of the measuring device and the standard, is the height of the standard square, where is the angle of inclination of the standard square.

The constancy of shape perception in experiments with inversion of the field of view using an invertoscope drops to zero, and in the process of adaptation it is restored, reaching the pre-experimental level. Experiments with inversion of the human visual field are carried out to study the mechanisms of constancy of visual perception.

One of the explanations for the constancy of perception is based on the distinction between perception and sensitivity (sensation). The perception of the actual properties of objects is a subjective mental process that connects sensations (sensory experience) of the properties of an object with other stimulus information.

An example of the Ponzo illusion. Both horizontal lines are the same size.

So the property of the size of an object is associated with the distance to the object, the brightness of the object is associated with illumination. A subjective mental process of perception that allows a person to recognize an object as the same even if it is located at different distances from it (in this case, the object has a different angular size - if it is at a great distance - a small angular size, if at a small distance - a large angular size) is in some cases accompanied by "regression to actual objects". Optical illusions are an example of regression to real objects as a consequence of the constancy of perception. Thus, the Ponzo illusion shows how the regression carried out by perception to real objects that are located in the three-dimensional world, in the case of a two-dimensional object - a drawing - makes a person perceive a horizontal segment at the converging ends of vertical lines as more longer than the segment located at the diverging ends of the same vertical lines, as if the latter is located "closer" to the observer.

Perception factors

External

• Size
• Intensity (physically or emotionally)
• Contrast (contradiction with the environment)
• Movement
• Repeatability
• Novelty and recognition

Internal

A perceptual set is the expectation to see what should be seen from past experience. Needs and motivation - a person sees what he needs or what he considers important.

Having received an image, a person (or other subject) produces definition of the situation, that is, evaluates it, after which it makes a decision about its behavior.

Perception in zoopsychology

Perception is inherent mainly in higher living beings; in weak forms, which allow us to speak only of the rudiments of perception, something similar can be found in beings of the middle stages of evolution.

The mechanisms of social perception include: reflection, identification, causal attribution.

Perceptual Effects

Social perception has some special manifestations of perceptual inaccuracies called laws, effects, or perceptual errors.

• Effects of stereotyping:

• Halo effect (halo effect, halo or horn effect) - a general favorable or unfavorable opinion about a person is transferred to his unknown features.
• Sequence Effects:

• The effect of primacy (the effect of the first impression, the effect of acquaintance) - the first information is overestimated in relation to the next.
• Novelty effect - new information about the unexpected behavior of a well-known, loved one is given more importance than all the information received about him before.

• Role effect - behavior determined by role functions is taken as a personality trait.
• Presence effect - than better man owns something, the better he does it in front of others than in solitude.
• Advance effect - the lack of previously attributed non-existent virtues leads to disappointment.
• The effect of condescension - the leader exaggerates the positive features of his subordinates and underestimates the negative ones (typical for a leader of a conniving and, to some extent, democratic style).
• The effect of hyper exactingness - the head exaggerates the negative traits of subordinates and underestimates the positive ones (typical for an authoritarian style leader).
• The effect of physiognomic reduction - a conclusion about the presence psychological characteristics done on the basis of physical features.
• Beauty effect - more positive traits are attributed to a more attractive person.
• The effect of expectation - expecting a certain reaction from a person, we provoke him to it.
• Intra-group favoritism - "their own" seem better.

• The effect of negative asymmetry of initial self-esteem - over time there is a tendency towards the opposite intra-group favoritism.

• Presumption of reciprocity - a person believes that the "other" treats him the way he treats the "other".
• The phenomenon of the assumption of similarity - a person believes that "their" relate to other people in the same way as he does.
• Projection effect - a person comes from the fact that others have the same qualities as him.
• The phenomenon of ignoring the informational value of what did not happen - information about what could have happened, but did not happen, is ignored.

Attribution

Attribution - attributing characteristics to oneself or another person.

Impression

Impression formation

Impression formation - the process of creating one's impressions of others.

Impressions are:

• patterns of behavior
• Abstraction

Experience Management

Experience Management - behavior aimed at shaping and controlling the impression of others about oneself.

Impression management tactics:

• Strengthening your own position
• Strengthening the position of the interlocutor

self-presentation - behavior aimed at creating a favorable or corresponding to someone's ideals impression of oneself.

According to Gordon's 1996 study, the success rate of impression management tactics is distributed as follows:

1. Presenting the interlocutor in the best light
2. Agree with the opinion of the interlocutor.
3. self-presentation
4. Combination 1-3
5. Provision of services

Literature

• Organizational behavior / Gromova O.N., Latfullin G.R. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2008. - 432 p. - ISBN 978-5-91180-873-0
• K. Pribram. Brain languages. Experimental paradoxes and principles of neuropsychology / A.R. Luria .. - M .: Progress, 1975. - 464 p.

Notes

see also

Links

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010 .

• Perception, perception (from Latin perceptio) - sensory knowledge of objects of the surrounding world, subjectively presented as direct, immediate.

  Perception - for a person - the sensation of what is contemplated, for animals - sensual contemplation, sensual smell, etc. priority for the vital activity of the sense organs.

  Knowledge is possible on the basis of perception, it cannot be perception. Sensations - what distinguishes us from the animal world, the ability to objectify the environment. "Sensory knowledge" is not perception. “Objects of the surrounding world” and “direct subjective representation” are rather derivative perceptions. “Objects of the surrounding world” are possible only in our “imagination”, as an already structured reaction of the nervous system to the environment, in the form of already established images or phenomena. The world around us is our idea of ​​the environment, but not the environment itself. What actually exists and happens outside the range of our perception, what phenomena, and in what capacity, are little known to us. Objects and phenomena of the surrounding world are subjects of the environment, as a result of which the “objectivity of the surrounding world” and “direct subjective representation”, in essence, are the content already formed by us, which can be expressed as - the representation of the environment is subjective, and is given in objectivity and phenomenon like the surrounding world. As you can see, objects and phenomena are not given in finished form, but are gradually formed by our nervous system, thanks to our ability to perceive the environment in a peculiar way. This is a long process in which, in addition to perception, which provides material for future structures, other mechanisms are involved, in particular our ability to structure, which leads to the construction of finished structures from this material and their interconnection. The process of cognition in this series is final, and is based on sensations, not on feelings. So it is impossible to explain the perception when it is replaced by the subject obtained through this perception, even more so when the perception itself is replaced by some "sensory knowledge". This is not an object of perception, but a subject, and such a subject, which in the period of formation is compared with the environment in the process of perception. “Direct subjective representation” presupposes, first of all, the presence of an object of representation, which is possible with the ability to form images, which, in turn, is made up of elements obtained also on the basis of perception. As you can see, there are some inaccuracies that bring confusion and lead to involuntary substitution of concepts. We replace the process of perception with formed images of objects or phenomena that have developed on the basis of perception, but they are not perception in themselves. The source and subject of perception is the environment, and images and phenomena are the subject of comparison with the environment through perception.

  Various interpretations of perception

  According to the philosophy of empiricism, perception consists of sensations or, in a later version of this philosophy, of the so-called sensory data (J. Moore, B. Russell, etc.). The interpretation of sensations as elementary "bricks" of the mental has become especially widespread in associative psychology. Philosophical criticism of the thesis about the possibility of constructing perception from sensations or sense data was carried out, in particular, by G. Ryle and M. Merleau-Ponty. In the psychology of the 20th century, there was a rejection of the interpretation of perception as a combination of atomic sensory contents (sensations); perception began to be understood as holistic and structural. According to the modern psychologist J. Gibson, perception is an active process of extracting information about the surrounding world, which includes real actions to examine what is being perceived. Perception understood in this way presents to the subject those properties of the external world that correlate with the needs of the subject and express the possibilities of his activity in a given real situation. According to W. Neisser, the extraction of information occurs on the basis of the subject's schemes of various objects and the world as a whole. Most of these schemes are acquired through experience, but there are also initial schemes that

4.3. Perception

The concept of perception. In the process of cognitive activity, a person rarely deals with individual properties of objects and phenomena. Usually, an object appears in a combination of various properties and parts. Color, shape, size, smell, emitted sounds, weight of an object simultaneously evoke various sensations that are closely related to each other. On the basis of the interconnection and interdependence of various sensations, the process of perception takes place. Such forms of reflection as sensations and perception are links in a single process of sensory cognition. But if sensations reflect the individual properties of objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality, then perception gives them a holistic image; in contrast to the complex of sensations, it is objective. Perception presupposes the presence of a variety of sensations, moreover, it is impossible without sensations, but cannot be reduced to their sum, since, in addition to sensations, it includes past human experience in the form of ideas and knowledge.

Perception- this is a holistic reflection of objects and phenomena in the totality of their properties and parts with their direct impact on the senses.

The process of perception proceeds in close connection with other mental processes: thinking (we are aware of what is in front of us), speech (we designate an object with a word), memory, attention, will (we organize the process of perception), is guided by motivation, has an affective-emotional coloring (what We relate in some way to what we perceive).

Perception is a more complex process than sensations. Perception is not a passive copy of an instantaneous impact, but a living, creative process knowledge, a complex activity, an important part of which are movements. If the eye is motionless, it ceases to see the object, to pronounce sounds, tension of the muscles of the larynx is necessary, to know the properties of the object, it must be examined - to connect the movements of the hand. At the same time, four levels of perceptual action are distinguished: 1) detection (is there a stimulus?); 2) distinction (formation of a perceptual image of the standard) - these two actions are perceptual; 3) identification - identification of the perceived object with the image stored in memory; 4) identification - the assignment of an object to a certain class of objects that were perceived earlier; the last two actions are related to identification.

Thus, perception is a system of perceptual actions, the mastery of which requires special training and practice.

In human life, perception is of great importance - it is the basis of orientation in the surrounding world, in society, a necessary component of social relations, the perception of a person by a person.

Physiological basis of perception. There are no special organs of perception; analyzers provide the material for it. In this case, the primary analysis that takes place in the receptors is supplemented by the complex analytic-synthetic activity of the brain ends of the analyzer. Since any object of the external world acts as a complex complex stimulus (for example, a lemon has a size, color, taste, size, temperature, smell, name, etc.), perception is based on complex systems of neural connections between different analyzers. We can say that the physiological basis of perception is the complex activity of analyzers.

Perceptual Properties. In the structure of perception, two substructures are distinguished - properties and types. The properties of perception include selectivity, objectivity, apperception, integrity, structure, constancy, meaningfulness.

The objects and phenomena of the surrounding world act on a person in such a variety that he cannot perceive all of them with a sufficient degree of clarity and react to them simultaneously. From huge amount A person perceives only a few of the influencing objects with the greatest distinctness and awareness.

Predominant selection of some objects in comparison with others characterizes selectivity perception. What is in the center of a person's attention during perception is the subject of perception, everything else, secondary, is the background of perception. They are very dynamic: what was the subject of perception, upon completion of the work, can merge with the background, and vice versa, something from the background can become the subject of perception. This is of great practical importance: when it is necessary to help distinguish an object from the background, they use bright colors (orange vests of railwaymen, orange and blue suits of astronauts), a special font (rules in textbooks), etc. Sometimes, when it is necessary to make it difficult to distinguish an object, dissolve it in the background, use camouflage, camouflage robes, nets with twigs, silver color (airplanes, fuel tanks, etc.).

The selectivity of perception is determined by the needs of the individual, interests, attitudes, personal qualities person.

objectivity perception is its relation to the objects of the external world. A person perceives an object not only as a set of features, but also evaluates it as a specific object, not limited to establishing its individual characteristics, but always referring to some category, for example: oval, green, odorous, tasteless, watery - this is a cucumber, a vegetable; round, orange, fragrant, rough, sweet - this is an orange, a fruit.

Sometimes the process of recognition does not occur immediately - a person has to peer, listen, approach the object in order to obtain new information about it. Recognition can be non-specific when a person defines only the type of an object (some kind of car, building, person), or specific (this is my brother's car, this is our history teacher), etc.

Objectivity in a certain way affects a person's behavior: if you show him a brick and a block of dynamite, he will behave differently.

Very important properties of perception associated with objectivity are its integrity and structure. Perception is always there holistic object image. Visual sensations do not provide objective reflection. The retina of the frog's eye ("insect detector") signals several signs of an object, such as movement, the presence of angles. A frog does not have a visual image, therefore, surrounded by motionless flies, it can die of starvation. The ability of holistic visual perception is not innate. In those born blind, who acquired sight in adulthood, perception does not occur immediately, but after a few weeks. This fact once again confirms that perception is formed in the process of practice and is a system of perceptual actions that must be mastered.

Structurality perception lies in the fact that it is not just the sum of sensations, it reflects the relationship of various properties and parts of the object, i.e., their structure. Each part included in the image of perception acquires meaning only when it is correlated with the whole and is determined by it. So, when listening to music, we perceive not individual sounds, but a melody; we recognize this melody when it is performed by an orchestra, or by one musical instrument, or a human voice, although the auditory sensations are different.

Since the psyche is a subjective image of the objective world, people perceive the same information in different ways, depending on the characteristics of the perceiving personality - its orientation, views, beliefs, interests, needs, abilities, experienced feelings. The dependence of perception on the content of a person’s mental life, the characteristics of his personality and past experience is called apperceptions. This is one of the most important properties of perception, since it gives it an active character.

constancy- this is the relative constancy of the perceived size, color and shape of objects with a change in distance, angle, illumination. Its source is the active actions of the system of analyzers that provide the act of perception. The perception of objects under different conditions makes it possible to single out a relatively constant invariant structure of an object. Constancy is not an innate, but an acquired property. In the absence of constancy, orientation is impossible. If perception were not constant, then at every step, turn, movement, we would encounter “new” objects without recognizing them.

The perception of a person is not only a sensual image, but also the awareness of a certain object isolated from the surrounding world. Thanks to the understanding of the essence and purpose of objects, it becomes possible to use them purposefully, Practical activities with them. meaningfulness perception is the awareness of the displayed objects, and the reflection of any single case as a special manifestation of the general - generality perception. Meaningfulness and generalization of perception are achieved by understanding the essence of objects in the process of mental activity. Perception proceeds as a dynamic process of searching for an answer to the question: “What is this?” To comprehend, to consciously perceive an object means, first of all, to name it, to generalize it in a word, to attribute it to a certain class. We compare an unfamiliar object with a familiar one, trying to attribute it to a certain category. The Swiss psychiatrist G. Rorschach (1884–1928) showed that even meaningless ink spots are always perceived by normal people as something meaningful (butterflies, a dog, clouds, a lake, etc.). Only some mentally ill people tend to perceive random inkblots as such.

Types of perception. Perception differs by type depending on the predominant role of one or another analyzer, since not all analyzers play the same role: usually one of them is the leader.

Depending on the leading analyzer, the following types of perception are distinguished.

1. Simple visual, auditory, tactile. Each person owns all simple views perception, but one of these systems is usually more developed than the others, which corresponds to the three main areas of sensory experience: visual, auditory, and kinesthetic.

visual type. All perceived information is presented to this type of people in the form of vivid pictures, visual images. They often gesticulate, as if drawing images in the air. They are characterized by statements: "I clearly see that ...", "Look here ...", "Let's imagine ...", "The solution is already looming ...".

Auditory type. These people use other words: “It sounds like this ...”, “I resonate with this ...”, “I hear what you are saying ...”, “Listen ...”, etc.

kinesthetic type. People belonging to this type remember movements and sensations well. In conversation, they use kinesthetic words and expressions: “If you take, for example ...”, “I can’t grasp the thought ...”, “Try to feel ...”, “It is very difficult ...”, “I feel that ...”.

Pronounced representatives of these types have specific features in behavior, body type and movements, in speech, breathing, etc. The leading sensory system affects the compatibility and effectiveness of communication with other people. In life, people often do not understand each other well, in particular, because their leading sensory systems do not match. If you need to establish good contact with a person, then you need to use the same process words as him. If you want to establish a distance, you can intentionally use words from a different representational system than the interlocutor's.

2. Complex types of perception are distinguished if several analyzers are equally intensively mobilized:

visual-auditory;

visual-auditory-tactile; visual-motor and auditory-motor.

3. Special types of perception are distinguished depending on the perceived object: time, space, movements, relationships, speech, music, person by person, etc.

Depending on the degree of purposefulness of the individual's activity, involuntary and arbitrary perception are distinguished. involuntary perception can be caused both by the characteristics of the surrounding objects, and by the correspondence of these objects to the interests and needs of the individual. Arbitrary perception involves goal setting, the application of volitional efforts, the deliberate choice of the object of perception. Arbitrary perception turns into observation - a purposeful, systematic perception of an object with a specific, clearly perceived goal. Observation is the most developed form of voluntary perception and is characterized by great activity of the individual.

The most important requirements for the observation process are: setting a goal, regularity, systematic, clarity of the task, its fragmentation, setting private, more specific tasks. Observation must be specially trained. If a person systematically exercises in observation, improves his culture, then he develops such a personality trait as observation - the ability to notice characteristic, but subtle features of objects and phenomena.

Perceptual disturbances. Perception does not always give an absolutely correct idea of ​​the world around us. Sometimes in a state of mental overwork, a person has a reduced susceptibility to external stimuli - hypoesthesia. Everything around becomes dim, fuzzy, faded, shapeless, uninteresting, frozen. With a sharp physical or emotional overwork, there is an increase in susceptibility to completely ordinary stimuli - hypertension. Daylight is suddenly blinding, sounds are deafening, smells are irritating, even the touch of clothes on the body seems rough and unpleasant.

Misperception of real objects is called illusions(from lat. illusio - deceptive). Illusions can be affective, verbal, and transient. affective illusions are caused by a depressed state, bad mood, anxiety, fear - even clothes hanging on a hanger can seem like a robber, a random passerby - a rapist, a murderer. verbal Illusions lie in a false perception of the content of real conversations of other people. It seems to a person that everyone is condemning him, hinting at some unseemly deeds, mocking him, threatening him. Pereidolic illusions are caused by a decrease in the tone of mental activity, passivity. The usual patterns on the wallpaper, cracks on the ceiling, on the floor, various chiaroscuro are perceived as bright pictures, fairy-tale characters, fantastic images, extraordinary panoramas.

Illusions should be distinguished from hallucinations - psychopathological manifestations of perception and memory. Hallucination- this is an image (visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile, gustatory) that arises in the mind regardless of external stimuli and has the meaning of objective reality for a person. Hallucinations are a consequence of the fact that perception is saturated not with external impressions, but with internal images. A person who is in the grip of hallucinations experiences them as truly perceived - he really sees, hears, smells, and does not represent all this. For him, subjective sensory sensations are just as real as those coming from the objective world.