The choice of technological production schemes is one of the main tasks in the design of industrial enterprises, since it is the technological scheme that makes it possible to determine the sequence of operations, their duration and mode, and also determine the place of supply of auxiliary components, spices and containers, and allows, with a sufficiently full load of equipment, to ensure a reduction duration of the technological cycle, increase the yield of products and reduce losses at individual stages of processing, and eliminate deterioration in the quality of raw materials during processing. It should be taken into account modern trends in the manufacturing technology of individual groups of products and the introduction of new advanced equipment.

The production flow chart is a sequential list of all operations and processes for processing raw materials, starting from the moment of its receipt and ending with release finished products, indicating decisions made processing (duration of operations or process, temperature, degree of grinding, etc.)

At the designed enterprise, in accordance with the specifications, whole muscle and restructured products, fried sausage and semi-finished meat and bone products are produced.

Raw materials can be supplied to production in a chilled or frozen state. It is preferable to use chilled meat, as it has higher functional and technological properties. When using frozen meat, it must first be thawed. For this purpose, the enterprise has defrosting chambers. Defrosting of raw materials is carried out in an accelerated way, using a steam-air mixture, which reduces weight loss, and this, in turn, reduces the loss of meat juice and, as a consequence, water-soluble proteins, vitamins, nitrogenous extractives, mineral components, and also reduces the duration of the process.

To move carcasses from the defrosting and accumulation chambers to the raw materials department, overhead tracks are used, which makes it easier to transport raw materials. The overhead track is also used in stripping and cutting operations, which will also make it easier for workers, as well as reduce the contamination of raw materials, and, consequently, improve the quality of finished products.

Instead of a platform for cutting carcasses in the raw materials department, a suspended path is provided parallel to the tables to isolate anatomical parts. This will reduce the time and effort required to transport raw materials to the cutting workers.

Salting of delicacy products is carried out by injecting brine into the product using a multi-needle syringe PSM 12-4.5 I. Injecting brine allows you to reduce the salting time, improve the microbiological condition, and obtain a juicy product. And the use of this injector is due to high speed extrusion, as well as the uniform distribution of brine inside the product due to large quantity needles, in addition, on the injector PSM 12-4.5 I, it is possible to inject brines with high viscosity.

Then the injected raw material is massaged. The massaging process is a type of intensive mixing and is based on the friction of pieces of meat against each other and against the internal walls of the apparatus.

The massaging operation allows you to reduce the salting time, promotes a more complete distribution of the salting ingredients inside the product, and, consequently, improves the functional and technological properties of the raw materials, and hence the quality of the finished product.

To implement the massaging process, the designed enterprise has the following equipment: VM-750, MK-600, UVM-400, which allows the massaging process to be carried out in a vacuum environment, with a depth of up to 80%, and this increases the positive effect of the process, the use of pulsating vacuum causes additional contraction/relaxation of muscle fibers.

Hams are a restructured product. The raw materials are pre-crushed in the form of meal (16-25 mm) on a grinder ShchFMZ-FV-120; during mechanical grinding, the cellular structures of muscle fibers are partially destroyed, which further increases the intermolecular interaction of muscle proteins and curing ingredients.

Then the raw materials are processed in an Eller Vacomat-750 massager with the addition of brine and further massaging. The produced hams are a product with increased yield. This is possible thanks to the soy protein included in the brine preparation, which increases water-binding, gelling and adhesive abilities. Soy protein can also improve tenderness, juiciness, texture, consistency, color and shelf stability of products.

Massaging small pieces allows you to shorten the process of massaging and maturing, and also makes it possible to use trimmings and residues from large pieces of raw materials. To prevent foam from forming during massaging, a vacuum massager is used, which also has a positive effect on color and consistency.

Minced semi-smoked (fried) sausages with salting are prepared in a mince mixer SAP IMP 301, with low power and energy consumption, which helps reduce energy costs.

To form loaves of fried sausage, “Onezhskaya”, “In Casing” and Nut “Special” hams, use a universal vacuum syringe (semi-automatic) V-159 Ideal. The use of vacuum during the molding process makes it possible to prevent additional aeration of the raw materials, ensure the necessary packing density, which leads to high organoleptic characteristics of the finished product, eliminates the possibility of fat oxidation and increases the stability of the product during storage.

The hams are formed into an artificial casing “Amiflex”, which avoids the appearance of undercooked or overcooked loaves. Due to the uniformity of the caliber, high elasticity makes it possible to obtain a loaf with a smooth surface, no losses during heat treatment and storage; excellent presentation (no wrinkles) of the finished product throughout the entire shelf life; Possibility of typographic marking, clipping, wide choice of colors.

The use of clippers KORUND-CLIP 1-2.5 and ICH "TECHNOCLIPPER" makes it possible to increase labor productivity to reduce the share manual labor, the possibility of dosing along the length, ensuring the required filling density of the loaves.

Heat treatment hams and deli products are produced in universal thermal chambers ElSi ETO, equipped with smoke generators. Advantage of this equipment The point is that the chamber can operate in a wide temperature range (up to 180 0 C), allowing heat treatment for almost any product. The cameras are also equipped program controlled, a set of standard processing programs and the ability to adjust them.

For cutting bones and semi-finished products obtained from cutting, a PM-FPL-460 band saw is used; it has a low installed power, which reduces energy costs.

All equipment in the technological schemes is modern, allowing you to reduce the time many times technological process, through functionality, improve product quality and improve productivity.

The basic technological diagram does not give an idea about the equipment in which technological processes take place, its height location, as well as Vehicle ah, used for moving raw materials, semi-finished products and finished products. The hardware and technological diagram depicts in a certain sequence (along the course of production) all the equipment that ensures the progress of technological processes and other plant equipment associated with it (for example, transport), as well as elements of independent functional purposes (pumps, fittings, sensors, etc. .).

The diagram must contain: a) a graphically simplified image of the equipment in an interconnected technological and installation connection; b) a list of all elements of the diagram (explication); c) a table of points for measuring and monitoring process parameters; d) table of symbols of communications (pipelines).

The explication is placed above the main inscription (at a distance of at least 12 years from it) in the form of a table, which is filled out from top to bottom according to the form shown in Fig. 2.

Rice. 2. Explication of the elements of the hardware and technological diagram.

In the “Designation” column, the corresponding designations of the circuit elements are given. There are two possible designations. For the first, all elements of the circuit are designated by integers. For the second - in letters, for example: screw press - PSh, pump - N, etc. If there are several elements of the same name in the diagram, a numerical index is added to the letter designation, which is entered from the right side after the letter, the height of the numerical index can be equal to the height letters, for example: fermenters BA1, BA2, ...BA10. For fittings and devices, the height of the numerical index should be equal to half the height of the letters, for example: B32 (second shut-off valve), KP4 (fourth trial valve).

Rice. 1.

The designation of circuit elements for devices, machines and mechanisms is placed directly on the images of the equipment or next to them; for fittings and instrumentation (instrumentation) - only next to their image.

In the “Name” column the name of the corresponding element is given, and in the “Quantity” column the numbers indicate the number of units of the corresponding circuit elements.

In the “Note” column, enter the brand or short description of the circuit element.

All equipment in the diagram is drawn with solid thin lines (0.3-0.5 g), and pipelines and fittings are drawn with solid main lines two to three times thick.

All equipment in the diagram is shown conventionally according to the given graphic symbols. If there is no conventional graphic designation for certain equipment in the guidelines, its structural outline is schematically depicted, showing the main process fittings, hatches, inlet and outlet of the main product.

The routing of pipelines is depicted schematically: they must depart from the main main pipelines, which are also shown schematically with lower or higher equipment shown in the diagram.

Symbols of pipelines shown in Fig. 3.

Rice. 3. Pipeline symbols

Liquid and solid substances are indicated by solid arrows, and gas and vapor are indicated by contour equilateral arrows.

The movement of the main product throughout the diagram is shown with a solid line - from raw materials to finished products. In this case, the main product flow is depicted as a thick line.

It is advisable to depict communications for other substances, unlike food ones, not as a solid line, but with a break every 20-80 mm; in these spaces the digital designations adopted for one or another substance are put down.

Possible representation of communications with lines of a certain color, but with mandatory duplication with digital symbols.

The standard contains accepted digital designations for 27 substances. If the diagram needs to show pipelines for substances not listed in the standard, then a number is put on the image of the corresponding communication, starting from 28 and onwards.

Symbols and designations of pipelines adopted in the diagram must be deciphered into tables of symbols in the form shown in Fig. 4.

The table is placed in the lower left forged sheet.

Rice. 4. .

On each pipeline, near the place of its outlet (supply) from (to) the main or the place of its connection (disconnection) to (from) an apparatus or machine, arrows are placed that indicate the direction of flow.

Technological diagrams are carried out on sheets of drawing paper in A0, A1, A2, A3, A4 formats. Additional formats are obtained by increasing the sides of the main ones by values ​​that are multiples of the sizes 297 and 210 g in A4 format.

The main inscription is placed on the right forged sheet and is made according to the form shown in Fig. 5.

Rice. 5. Form of the title block.

The placement of an additional column (size 70 (14 years) for re-recording the designation for a document is shown in Fig. 6.

Drawing up a hardware-technological diagram begins with drawing thin horizontal lines of levels on sheets of drawing paper (more convenient than millimeter paper) with markings along the heights of the floors of production premises. Then they draw the corresponding conventional graphic designations of technological equipment, including auxiliary ones (storages, collectors, measuring tanks, traps, sewer inlets, settling tanks, pumps, compressors, fire extinguishers, special vehicles, etc.).

Rice. 6. Placement of the main inscription and additional column on the sheets: 1 – main inscription; 2 – additional column.

The placement of equipment on the diagram must necessarily correspond to its floor placement, since it is related to the presence of vehicles. Graphically depicting symbols equipment and scale are not adhered to, but maintain a certain proportionality.

The drawing of the hardware and technological diagram should show material pipelines, warning and valves, which are essential for the correct and safe conduct of the technological process. On devices and pipelines, all instrumentation and adjustment devices (actuators and sensors), as well as sampling points necessary to ensure proper monitoring and control of the technological process, are indicated.

The parameter measurement point is indicated by a circle with a serial number inside (for example, 5 – temperature, 6 – pressure).

The locations indicated on the equipment and pipelines for installing instruments for measuring and monitoring temperature, pressure, consumption of the working medium, etc. are entered into the table (Fig. 7).

The fittings and instrumentation that they are installed on the equipment must be shown on the diagram according to their actual location and depicted accordingly with a conventional graphic image.

Rice. 7. .

The beginning of the technological process is necessarily depicted on the sheets on the left side, and the end - on the right side, although the location of the equipment is in production premises does not always meet these conditions. The equipment in the diagram is placed behind the main product flow.

In the case of arranging equipment on several parallel lines (for example, in the case of drawing up a diagram for bottling wine near a barrel and a bottle), the diagram is presented in two parallel levels (so as not to stretch), but indicating the same floor level mark. If the production is multi-stage, the hardware-technological diagram is drawn for each stage separately according to the production flow diagram.

In the hardware-technological diagram there is no need to draw all parallel operating equipment, for example, receiving bins, fermenters, filters, etc. Draw the number of devices necessary for a complete representation of the sequence of technological processes. In this case, the list of circuit elements must indicate the total number of pieces of equipment for one purpose.

If the diagram depicts the same type of equipment, the specifics of its use should be noted and designated with different indices or numbers, for example, a centrifuge for wine material and a centrifuge for yeast sediment. It is necessary to place images of equipment as compactly as possible, but taking into account the necessary intervals for product communications connected to the machine devices at those points where they are connected in reality. Pipe lines are shown on the diagram horizontally and vertically parallel to the sheet frame lines. The image of communications should not cross the image of the equipment. If mutual crossing of images occurs, traces are made.

If the line of product communication between individual devices is long, it can be interrupted in exceptional cases. At the same time, at one end of the broken line they indicate to which position on the diagram this line should be brought, and at the opposite end - from which position it should be brought. The horizontal or vertical level of the gap is preserved.

On the communication lines that show the introduction of raw materials into production or the removal of finished products and waste, an inscription is made that indicates where this or that product comes from or where it is supplied. For example, on the line that indicates the supply of alcohol, they write “From the alcohol storage”; on the line that indicates the output of the product “To the composition of the finished product,” etc.

The addition provides an example of a hardware and technological scheme for obtaining white table wine materials.

The main apparatus of the technological scheme is the oxidation column. It is a cylinder with an expanded upper part, which plays the role of a splash trap, 12 meters high and 1 meter in diameter. The column is made of aluminum or chromium-nickel steel, which are slightly susceptible to corrosion in an acetic acid environment. Inside the column has shelves, between which there are serpentine refrigerators to remove reaction heat and several pipes for supplying oxygen.

Chapter 9. Production of ethylbenzene.

Areas of application of ethylbenzene: used in the production of styrene, an important raw material for the production of a number of polymers, polystyrene used in the automotive industry, the electrical and radio industry, in the manufacture of household goods and packaging, in the production of ion exchange resins - catalysts for the process of obtaining oxygen-containing additives in the production of reformulated gasoline, etc. .d.

In industry, ethylbenzene is produced by reacting benzene with ethylene:

C 6 H 6 + C 2 H 4 = C 6 H 5 C 2 H 5 (9.1.)

A number of side reactions occur simultaneously with the main one. The most important reactions are sequential alkylation:

C 6 H 5 C 2 H 5 + C 2 H 4 = C 6 H 4 (C 2 H 5) 2 (9.2.)

C 6 H 4 (C 2 H 5) 2 + C 2 H 4 = C 6 H 3 (C 2 H 5) 3 (9.3.)

C 6 H 3 (C 2 H 5) 3 + C 2 H 4 = C 6 H 2 (C 2 H 5) 4 (9.4.)

To suppress side reactions (2-4), the process is carried out in an excess of benzene (ethylene:benzene molar ratio = 0.4:1), at a temperature of about 100 0 C and a pressure of 0.15 MPa.

To accelerate the main reaction (1), the process is carried out in the presence of a selective catalyst. A complex compound of AlCl 3 and HCl with aromatic hydrocarbons, which is in the liquid phase, is used as a catalyst.

Heterogeneous catalytic process, limiting stage:

diffusion of ethylene through the boundary film of the aluminum chloride catalytic complex. The alkylation reaction proceeds very quickly.

Under the selected conditions, the conversion of ethylene is 98-100%, the main reaction (1) is irreversible and exothermic.

To increase the utilization of raw materials, benzene recycling has been organized.

A catalyst based on aluminum chloride promotes the transalkylation reaction of diethylbenzene:

C 6 H 4 (C 2 H 5) 2 + C 6 H 6 = 2C 6 H 5 C 2 H 5 (9.5.)

Therefore, small amounts of diethylbenzene are returned to the alkylator reactor for transalkylation.

The transalkylation reaction promotes the almost complete conversion of ethylene and benzene to ethylbenzene.

The processes of alkylation and transalkylation are influenced by the following main factors: concentration of catalyst (aluminum chloride), promoter (hydrochloric acid), temperature, contact time, molar ratio of ethylene and benzene, pressure.

Technological scheme for the production of ethylbenzene.

Figure 9.1. Technological scheme for the production of ethylbenzene using a catalyst based on AlCl 3.

1,3,15-17 - distillation columns, 2 - Florentine vessel, 4 - catalyst preparation reactor, 6 - condenser, 7 - liquid-liquid separator, 8,9,11,13 - scrubbers, 10,12 - pumps, 14 - heater, 18 - vacuum receiver, 19 - polyalkylbenzene refrigerator, I - ethylene, II - benzene, III - diethylbenzenes, IV - alkali solution, V - ethylbenzene, VI - polyalkylbenzenes, VII - to the vacuum line, VIII - water, IX - gases to the flare, X - ethyl chloride and aluminum chloride, XI - waste water.

In a two-column heteroazeotropic distillation unit, consisting of a distillation column 1, a stripping column 3 and a Florentine vessel 2, the initial benzene is dried. Dehydrated benzene is removed from the bottom of column 1, part of which enters apparatus 4 for preparing the catalyst solution, and the rest as a reagent into reactor 5. Column 1 receives both fresh and recycled benzene. The upper vapor streams of columns 1 and 3 are heteroazeotropic mixtures of benzene and water. After condensation in the condenser and separation in Florentine vessel 2, the upper layer, watered benzene, enters column 1, and the lower layer, water containing benzene, is sent to column 3.

The catalytic complex is prepared in an apparatus with a stirrer 4, into which benzene is supplied, as well as aluminum chloride, ethylene chloride and polyalkylbenzenes. The reactor is filled with catalyst solution, and then during the process the catalyst solution is supplied as make-up as it is partially removed from the reactor for regeneration, as well as with the reaction water.

The alkylation reactor is a column apparatus 5, in which the reaction heat is removed by supplying cooled raw materials and evaporating benzene. The catalyst solution, dried benzene and ethylene are fed into the lower part of the reactor 5. After bubbling, the unreacted vapor-gas mixture is removed from the reactor and sent to the condenser 6, where the benzene that has evaporated in the reactor is first condensed. The condensate is returned to the reactor, and non-condensed gases containing significant amounts of benzene and HCl enter the lower part of the scrubber 8, irrigated with polyalkylbenzenes to capture benzene. A solution of benzene in polyalkylbenzenes is sent to the reactor, and non-condensed gases enter scrubber 9, irrigated with water to capture hydrochloric acid. Dilute hydrochloric acid is sent for neutralization, and gases are sent for heat recovery.

The catalyst solution, together with the alkylation products, enters the settling tank 7, the lower layer of which (catalyst solution) is returned to the reactor, the upper layer (alkylation products) is sent to the lower part of the scrubber 11 using pump 10. Scrubbers 11 and 13 are designed for washing hydrogen chloride and aluminum chloride , dissolved in alkylate. Scrubber 11 is irrigated with an alkali solution, which is pumped by pump 12. To make up the recirculating alkali flow, fresh alkali is supplied in the amount necessary to neutralize the HCl. Next, the alkylate enters the lower part of the scrubber 13, irrigated with water, which washes the alkali out of the alkylate. The aqueous alkali solution is sent for neutralization, and the alkylate is sent through heater 14 for rectification into column 15. In rectification column 15, a heteroazeotrope of benzene with water is separated into the distillate. Benzene is sent to column 1 for dehydration, and the bottoms are sent for further separation into distillation column 16 to isolate ethylbenzene as a distillate. The bottom product of column 16 is sent to the distillation column 11 of polyalkylbenzenes into two fractions. The upper product is sent to apparatus 4 and reactor 5, and the lower product is removed from the system as the target product.

Hardware design of the process.

The process of alkylation of benzene with ethylene in the presence of a catalyst based on AlCl 3 is liquid-phase and proceeds with the release of heat. To carry out the process, three types of reactor can be proposed. The simplest is a tubular apparatus (Fig. 9.2.), in the lower part of which there is a powerful stirrer designed to emulsify the catalyst solution and reagents. This type of apparatus is often used to organize a batch process.

Fig.9.2. Tubular reactor.

Reagents: benzene and ethylene, as well as a catalyst solution are fed into the lower part of the reactor. The emulsion rises up the pipes, cooled by water supplied to the interpipe space. Synthesis products (alkylates), unreacted benzene and ethylene, as well as the catalyst solution are removed from the upper part of the reactor and enter the separator. In the separator, the catalyst solution is separated from the remaining products (alkylate). The catalyst solution is returned to the reactor, and the alkylates are sent for separation.

To ensure process continuity, a cascade of 2-4 tubular reactors is used.

Rice. 9.3. Cascade of two reactors.

The catalyst solution is fed into both reactors, the reagents into the upper part of the first reactor. Both reactors are hollow apparatuses with stirrers. Heat is removed using water supplied to the “jackets”. The reaction mass from the upper part of the first reactor enters the separator, from which the lower (catalyst) layer returns to the reactor, and the upper one enters the next reactor. From the upper part of the second reactor, the reaction mass also enters the separator. The lower (catalyst) layer from the separator enters the reactor, and the upper layer (alkylates) is sent for separation.

Continuous alkylation of benzene with ethylene can be carried out in bubble columns.

Fig.9.4. Column type reactor.

The inner surface of the columns is protected with acid-resistant tiles. The upper part of the columns is filled with Raschig rings, the rest is filled with a catalyst solution. Benzene and ethylene are fed to the bottom of the column. Ethylene gas bubbling through the column intensively mixes the reaction mass. The conversion of reagents depends on the height of the catalyst layer. Partial heat is removed through a “jacket” divided into sections, and the rest of the heat is removed by heating the reagents and evaporating excess benzene. Benzene vapor, along with other gases, enters the condenser, in which mainly benzene is condensed. The condensate is returned to the reactor, and non-condensed substances are removed from the system for disposal. In this case, you can set the autothermal mode by varying the pressure and amount of exhaust gases.

The process is expediently carried out at a pressure of 0.15-0.20 MPa and a small amount of waste gases. In this case, the temperature does not exceed 100 0 C and resin formation decreases.

The catalyst solution, along with alkylation products and unreacted benzene, is removed from the top of the column (before the packing) and sent to the separator. The lower (catalyst) layer is returned to the column, and the upper (alkylate) layer is sent for separation.

After developing the operating diagram, they begin to draw up a basic technological diagram, which, in essence, is the hardware design of the operating room. It can be considered as consisting of a number of technological units. A technological unit is a device (machine) or a group of devices with piping pipelines and fittings, in which one of the physical-chemical or chemical processes begins and completely ends.

Technological units include such objects as collectors, measuring tanks, pumps, compressors, gas blowers, separators, heat exchangers, distillation columns, reactors, recovery boilers, filters, centrifuges, settling tanks, crushers, classifiers, dryers, evaporators, pipelines, pipeline fittings , safety devices, sensors and control and automation devices, actuating and regulating mechanisms and devices.

The vast majority of these devices and machines are produced by industry and are standardized. Information about the types of machines and devices produced, their designs and characteristics can be obtained from various reference books, catalogs of factory products, publications of industry and information institutes, advertising materials and industry scientific and technical magazines.

But before drawing up a process flow diagram, it is necessary to clarify a number of tasks that are being solved at this stage of work. This is, first of all, ensuring occupational health and safety. Therefore, the technological scheme must provide for means of preventing excess pressure (safety valves, explosion membranes, water seals, emergency tanks), systems for creating a protective atmosphere, emergency cooling systems, etc.

At the stage of synthesis of the technological scheme, the issue of reducing the costs of pumping products is resolved. Gravity flow should be used as much as possible to transport liquids from apparatus to apparatus. Therefore, the necessary excess of one apparatus over the other is already provided here.

At this stage, the set of heat and coolants that will be used in the process is determined. The cost of a unit of heat or cold depends on the availability of energy carriers at the enterprise and its parameters. The cheapest refrigerants are air and recycled industrial water. It is economically beneficial to transfer the main amount of heat to these cheap coolants and only remove the residual heat with expensive coolants (cold water, brine, liquid ammonia, etc.). The cheapest coolants are flue gases, but they are not transportable.

To draw up a basic technological diagram on a sheet of graph paper, first draw lines for the supply and output manifolds of material flows, coolants and refrigerants, leaving a free strip of 150 mm high in the lower part of the sheet, where instrumentation and control equipment will later be placed. It is recommended that gas manifold lines be drawn at the top of the sheet, and liquid manifold lines at the bottom. After this, on the plane of the sheet between the collectors, conventional images of the devices and machines necessary to perform the operations are placed in accordance with the developed operating scheme. Conventional images of machines and devices are not to scale. The horizontal distance between them is not regulated; it must be sufficient to accommodate lines of material flows and control and automation equipment. The vertical location of the conventional images should reflect the real excess of the device over another without observing scale. Conventional images of machines and apparatus placed on the plane of the sheet are connected by lines of material flows and lines of refrigerants and coolants are supplied. The positions of devices and machines are numbered from left to right.

When designing a technological scheme, special attention should be paid to the piping of its individual nodes. An example of such a harness is shown in Fig. 5.3. Shown here is a unit for absorbing a component of a gas mixture into a liquid. The normal operation of the absorption unit depends on constant temperature, pressure and the ratio of the amount of gas and absorbent. Compliance with these conditions is achieved by installing the following devices and fittings.

On the gas supply line (I): flow meter diaphragm, sampler, pressure socket and temperature socket.

On the gas outlet line (II): a flow meter diaphragm, a sampler, a boss for measuring temperature, a boss for measuring pressure, a control valve that maintains a constant pressure “upstream”, i.e. in the absorber.

On the fresh absorbent supply line (III): flow meter diaphragm, or rotameter, sampler, temperature measurement boss, control valve connected to the gas-to-absorbent ratio regulator.

On the saturated absorbent output line (IV): a flow meter diaphragm or rotameter, a boss for measuring temperature, a control valve connected to a liquid level regulator at the bottom of the absorber.

When developing a process flow diagram, it should be borne in mind that control valves cannot serve as shut-off devices. Therefore, the pipeline must be equipped with shut-off valves with manual or mechanical drive (valves, gate valves), and bypass (bypass) lines to shut off the control valves.

The drawn diagram is preliminary. After carrying out preliminary material and thermal calculations in the developed technological scheme, the possibilities of recovering heat and cold from technological material flows should be analyzed.

During the design process, other changes and additions may be made to the flow diagram. The final design of the technological scheme is made after making the main design decisions on the calculation and selection of reactors and apparatus, after clarification of all issues related to the placement and arrangement of the apparatus of the designed production.

Thus, sometimes when selecting equipment you have to deal with the fact that some of its types are either not produced in Russia or are at the development stage. The absence of any machine or devices of the required characteristics, made of structural material that is stable in a given environment, often causes the need to change individual components of the technological scheme and may cause a transition to another, less economically profitable method of obtaining the target product.

The process flow diagram cannot be final until the equipment has been assembled. For example, according to the original version, it was assumed that liquid would be transferred from apparatus to apparatus by gravity, which could not be accomplished during the development of the equipment placement project. In this case, it is necessary to provide for the installation of an additional transfer tank and pump, applied to the technological diagram.

The final flow diagram is drawn up after all sections of the project have been developed and drawn on standard sheets of paper in accordance with the requirements of the ESKD.

After this, a description of the technological scheme is drawn up, which is supplied with a specification. The specification indicates the number of all devices and machines.

The equipment reserve is selected taking into account the schedule of preventive maintenance and the properties of the technological process.

The description of the technological scheme is part of the explanatory note. It is advisable to describe the scheme at individual stages of the technological process. At the beginning, you should indicate what raw materials are supplied to the workshop, how it arrives, where and how it is stored in the workshop, what primary processing it is subjected to, how it is dosed and loaded into devices.

When describing the technological operations themselves, the design of the apparatus, the method of loading and unloading it are briefly reported, the characteristics of the ongoing process and the method of implementation (periodic, continuous) are indicated, the main parameters of the process (temperature, pressure, etc.), methods of its control and regulation, waste are listed and by-products.

The accepted methods of intra-shop and inter-shop transportation of products are described. The description must list all the diagrams, devices and machines shown in the drawing, indicating the numbers assigned to them according to the diagram.

The reliability of the developed technological scheme is analyzed and methods used to increase its stability are indicated.

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Physico-chemical bases of the ammonia production process, features of its technology, main stages and purpose, volumes at the present stage. Trait of initial raw materials. Analysis and evaluation of technology for cleaning converted gas from carbon dioxide.
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1. Condition research work in the field of production of fuel and energy from hydrocarbon raw materials
The main sources of fuel and energy in the modern world are natural hydrocarbon gases, watery oils and solid organic substances, which include petroleum bitumen, shale and coal. The source of raw materials for the production of motor fuels and basic organic synthesis products throughout the past century has been and remains to this day oil. But currently the situation is beginning to change. The growth rate of proven oil reserves no longer keeps pace with its consumption. Crude oil prices increased 8 times from 1999 to 2008. The decline in oil reserves can, in principle, be compensated for over many decades by the development of other necessary minerals. In the long term, coal, the reserves of which at today's rate of consumption will last for more than 1000 years, can take a dominant position in the world energy sector based on new technological solutions. According to expert estimates, in 2015 the share of oil in the global energy market will decrease to 36-38%, while the share of gas will increase to 24-26%, coal to 25-27%, the share of hydro- and nuclear energy it will be 5-6%. The volume of coal production in Russia by 2015 will be 335 million tons/year. .
The development of the oil refining industry in the world at the current time is justified by an increase in demand for motor fuel, petrochemical products and a decrease in the use of petroleum products in the energy and industrial sectors of the economy. In the USA and Western Europe in fact, the entire volume of serious investments was used for the construction of new secondary processes for upgrading and improving the properties of intermediate products of primary oil refining, improving the environmental properties of the products of existing plants.
The main task of the Russian oil industry, taking into account the ratio of prices for crude oil, boiler and motor fuel, and global trends in the consumption of petroleum products, is also to increase the depth of refining. But, global trends in the oil and gas complex - increasing the depth and efficiency of processing of hydrocarbon raw materials, increasing the properties of petroleum products, the development of petrochemicals in general - do not apply to Russia, but specifically the technical level of development of oil refining and gas chemistry, production of synthetic fuels and hydrocarbon raw materials for chemical and petrochemical industries industry, in strategic plan determines the compliance of the mining and chemical complexes as a whole.
At the present step to implement the development program production base Petrochemical industry is very enthusiastic about technologies based on the use of new generations of catalytic systems. First, technologies that ensure the creation of high-octane gasoline as a component, incl. synthetic watery fuel, and base raw materials for petrochemicals (olefins, aromatic hydrocarbons, raw materials for the production carbon black). Such technologies include deep catalytic cracking processes, complexes for the production of aromatic hydrocarbons, including from liquefied hydrocarbon gases, catalytic pyrolysis, and the production of synthetic watery fuel. These processes provide a raw material base for development and increase the efficiency of the basic processes of basic organic synthesis. .
As part of solving the difficulty of involving in processing different types hydrocarbon raw materials, improving the properties of fuels, increased attention is paid to the production of other fuels. Theoretical nuances and certain technological solutions for the production of fuel and energy from different types of organic raw materials have been carefully reviewed in a number of recognizable monographs, reviews and articles of the near future, which indicates the relevance and ongoing interest in this dilemma.
There are three groups of other motor fuels: synthetic (artificial) watery fuels obtained from non-traditional organic raw materials and similar in performance properties to petroleum fuels; consistency of petroleum fuels with oxygen-containing compounds (alcohols, ethers, water-fuel emulsions), which in terms of performance properties are close to conventional petroleum fuels; fuels of non-petroleum origin, differing in their properties from conventional ones (alcohols, compressed natural gas, liquefied gases).
A particularly pressing issue for modern Russian petrochemistry is the problem of producing environmentally friendly motor fuels (for example, the merits of the moderate content of aromatic hydrocarbons in gasoline - within the range of 25-35%, since currently produced products contain up to 43% of aromatic hydrocarbons, including including 3-5% benzene, sulfur).
Other motor fuels are systematized by type as follows: gas motor fuels (liquefied natural gas, compressed natural gas, liquefied petroleum gases - propane, butane); alcohols and gasoline alcohol mixtures (methyl, ethyl, isobutyl and other alcohols and their mixtures with gasoline in different proportions); ethers (methyl tert-butyl ether, methyl tert-butyl ether, ethyl tert-butyl ether, diisopropyl ether, also dimethyl ether); synthetic watery fuels obtained from natural gas and coal; biofuels (bioethanol, biodiesel) obtained from renewable raw materials; hydrogen and fuel cells running on hydrogen.
Gas engine fuels, especially liquefied propane and butane, liquefied natural gas, and compressed natural gas, have become widespread in the world. As non-standard sources of carbon-containing raw materials, associated gases from oil production and methane-containing emissions from coal mines can be used, if catalytic technologies are available. Of particular interest is the possibility of obtaining methane from underground gasification of coal as a substitute for natural gas.
Among the different alcohols and their consistencies, methanol and ethanol are most widespread. A significant drawback of this type of fuel remains its high price - depending on the production technology, alcohol fuels are 1.8 - 3.7 times more expensive than oil ones. From an energy point of view, the main advantage of alcohols lies in their highest detonation resistance - the main disadvantages are the reduced heat of combustion, the highest heat of evaporation and low saturated vapor pressure; ethanol is better than methanol in terms of performance characteristics. Methanol is used to produce synthetic watery fuels, as a high-octane fuel additive, or as a raw material for the production of an anti-knock additive - methyl tert-butyl ether.
Oxygenate fuels—the consistency of motor gasoline with different esters—have also become widespread. The more common methyl tert-butyl ether is a toxic substance, and in a number of countries ethyl tert-butyl ether is used instead of methyl tert-butyl ether. A special place is occupied by dimethyl ether, obtained from natural gas or together with methanol, or from methanol, and is an excellent diesel fuel. Great enthusiasm for this fuel is manifested in Asian countries, first in China, where it is used as household bottled gas, instead of diesel fuel and as fuel for power plants. The main raw material for its production in China is coal.
There is a growing volume of research work on the production of biofuels from various types of renewable raw materials, first bioethanol and biodiesel (according to the US standard, low-alkyl esters of fatty acids from plant or animal raw materials are taken as biodiesel fuel). These products are successfully produced by the USA, EU countries, Brazil, etc. Experts believe that only economically justified second-generation biofuels based on non-food raw materials are more complex processes transformations can diversify the world's energy portfolio. The prospects for the production and use of biofuels in Russia raise serious doubts.
According to the assessment of the energy and performance characteristics of other motor fuels, the more applicable types of fuels are synthetic hydrous fuels (SHF), dimethyl ether, oxygenates added to conventional petroleum motor fuels. These types of fuel have fully usable energy and operational characteristics; their use actually fits perfectly into the existing fuel consumption infrastructure and does not require additional investments in this infrastructure. Small configurations will require the introduction of dimethyl ether.
More promising for implementation in engines internal combustion products of coal liquefaction, flammable gases and watery products of their processing, alcohols, vegetable oils, also hydrogen as a more energy-intensive and environmentally friendly energy carrier.
When using gaseous fuels and alcohols, emissions of hydrocarbons, CO and nitrogen oxides are reduced, and hydrogen as a fuel eliminates the danger of the formation of CO and hydrocarbons, but coupled with an increase in NO2 emissions. In addition, when using alcohol fuels, the content of aldehydes in emissions increases by 2-4 times.
Options for the production of alternative fuels are being considered, based on large-scale developments in energy conversion and storage using a hydrogen energy cell with the introduction of nuclear energy sources. The largest consumers (up to 90% of total production) are the chemical (up to 80% of total consumption) and oil refining industries. Work on the use of high-temperature reactors for hydrogen energy has been launched in technologically advanced countries - the USA, South Korea, the Land of the Rising Sun, France, South Africa, and China. The development of such technologies in Russia will help maintain its leading position in the world in the field of nuclear energy.
The strategies of most countries for producing high-quality synthetic watery fuels from coal and natural gases are aimed at the development of the so-called CtL (Coal to Liquids) and GtL (Gas to Liquids) technologies. These technologies represent a set of chemical production facilities for the conversion of coal and natural gas into higher hydrocarbons, fuel and chemical products (production of synthesis gas from methane, conversion of synthesis gas into higher hydrocarbons using the Fischer-Tropsch method, separation and final processing of goods).
Technologies provide the ability to process synthesis gas into a wide range of products - from ethylene and alpha-olefins to hard paraffins, which are largely linear. Unsaturated hydrocarbons are represented mainly by alpha-olefins, with the lowest content of aromatic substances. But it is possible to diversify the factional composition within fairly wide limits. The main parameter here is the synthesis temperature.
As specialists from VNIIGAZ LLC note, the known technologies have no fundamental differences in the construction of the technological chain. At the first stage, synthesis is obtained - gas, the 2nd stage - Fischer-Tropsch synthesis and the 3rd - rectification and subsequent hydrocracking (or hydroisomerization) of heavy fractions of hydrocarbons. The largest oil producing and oil refining companies - ExxonMobil, Shell, ConocoPhyllips, Chevron, Marathon, Statol, Syntroleum and others - have such projects at various stages of implementation, from pilot plants to operating companies. In fact, there is not a single large oil and gas company left in the world, including OJSC Gazprom, that does not have its own technology for the production of fuels from gas, while all companies strive to be among the participants in the likely project of creating a GTL plant and do not license their developments. Typically, this group also considers related technologies for the conversion of methanol to gasoline (MtG), methanol to olefins (MtO), olefins to gasoline (olefins to gasoline and distillates, MtGD), and the production of dimethyl ether ( DME) and energy generation, including from methanol.
It is clear that technologies for converting methane into synthesis gas are based on the reactions of steam reforming of methane and partial oxidation. The CO:H2 ratio in synthesis gas depends on the method of its production and varies for steam and carbon dioxide conversion. In the reaction of hydrocarbon synthesis, depending on the catalyst, the ratio of CO:H2 = 1:1.5 and higher. Heat transfer obstacles are resolved in autothermal natural gas conversion processes. A leader in the development of autothermal synthesis gas processes is Haldor Topsoe, which has designed plants for GtL projects in South Africa, Qatar and Nigeria.
Experts are quite optimistic about the development capabilities of the GTL industry. Of course, the products of installations operating according to the Fischer-Tropsch reaction will, in the sense of competition with petroleum diesel fuels, make it possible to solve not global, but individual regional difficulties in providing fuel supply. The possibility of compounding GTL and GtL units (virtually free of sulfur and having a low content of aromatic compounds) with classical products of oil refineries to obtain fuels that meet environmental safety requirements is being more clearly observed.
Technologies for the production of GTL from natural gas have been developed in Russia. The paper describes a low-stage development of the production of LTL at low-pressure plants, which is characterized by the smallest number of stages, low process pressure, and the ability to use gas raw materials from low-pressure and off-balance fields. The process has flexible power control, the possibility of multiple scaling, and certain economic characteristics.
As a source of raw materials for the production of GTL and valuable chemical products, interest in coal has increased at present. Research into obtaining various products from coal is intensively conducted in countries with significant coal reserves or an expected increase in energy demand. But information about the technology of comprehensive use of coal for the production of synthetic liquid metallurgical metals and electricity, which allows flexible response to market needs for one or another product, including those designed for different grades of coal, is limited.
Research in the field of production of synthetic motor fuel and its industrial development is carried out by various countries, for example, the USA, Germany, South Africa, Japan, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Italy, France, Norway, etc.
China, which ranks third in the world in terms of coal reserves (after the USA and Russia), is the world leader in its production (above 2 billion tons), consumption (34%) and the creation of industrial CtL plants. The fuel and energy complex consumes about 60% of all mined coal. The construction of a number of different CtL companies is planned, first in the coal-mining northern provinces. Industrial factories are planned to be built in 2010 - 2011; in total, 30 different CtL projects have been announced in China, the implementation of which will allow the share of GTL to 10% of the total consumption of petroleum products by 2020, which exceeds the world average rate of industry development.
For solutions technical problems When processing coal as a raw material in the process of producing synthetic watery fuels, technologies using plasma energy are being considered. The effectiveness of technology implementation is achieved at the highest energy concentration, highest temperature and chemical activity of the plasma. In comparison with classical production technologies (GTL yield 120-140 kg/t of coal), the GTL yield will be about 161 kg/t of coal. Along with the highest specific productivity, the process is characterized by simplicity, flexibility and compact equipment, but, for completely understandable reasons, cannot be widely needed by the Russian economy.
Research on the dilemma of producing synthetic fuel from coal is also being carried out in Russia. In the Russian Federation in the 70-80s of the last century, intense research, experimental and design developments were carried out to create a competitive production of motor fuels and chemical products from oil refining from brown and hard coals, mainly open-pit mining, the world's largest deposits of the Kansko- Achinsk, Kuznetsk and other coal basins.
An element of GtL and CtL technologies is the synthesis of hydrocarbons from CO and H2 using the Fischer-Tropsch method, which is a complex system of chemical reactions occurring alternately and in parallel in the presence of a catalyst. Reaction equations for the synthesis of hydrocarbons in general view are presented below.
For the synthesis of alkanes:
nCO + (2n+1)H2 = CnH2n+2 + nH2O
2nCO + (n +1)H2 = CnH2n+2 + nCO2
3nCO + (n +1)H2 = CnH2n+2 +(2n+1)CO2
nCO2 + 3nH2 = CnH2n+2 + 2nH2O
For the synthesis of alkenes:
nCO + 2nH2 = CnH2n + nH2O
2nCO + nH2 = CnH2n + nCO2
3nCO + nH2O = CnH2n + 2nCO2
nCO2 + 3nH2 = CnH2n + 2nH2O
For alcohols and aldehydes:
nCO + 2nH2 = CnH2n+1OH + (n - 1)H2O
(2n - 1)CO + (n+1)H2 = CnH2n+1OH + (n - 1)CO2
3nCO + (n+1)H2O = CnH2n+1OH + 2nCO2
(n+1)CO + (2n+1)H2 = CnH2n+1CHO + nH2O
(2n+1)CO + (n+1)H2 = CnH2n+1CHO + nCO2
Ketones, carboxylic acids and esters can be created in small quantities. A complication of the synthesis process is the formation of carbon through the Boudoir reaction.
Fischer-Tropsch synthesis products are of great practical importance as coal chemical raw materials, especially due to the fact that they contain many olefins. The composition of the final products can be regulated by the configuration of the synthesis implementation criteria: temperature, pressure, composition of the obscurantist consistency, catalyst, contact time, technological design of the process. The highest yield of hydrocarbons in the synthesis at a ratio of CO:H2 = 1:2, calculated based on the sum of stoichiometric equations, is 208.5 g/m3.
To optimize the synthesis, it is necessary to take into account complex stoichiometry, thermodynamics, kinetics of chemical interaction taking into account the parameters of the catalysts, the hydrodynamic situation in the reactor, mass and thermal exchange processes. Therefore, choosing good technological criteria for the synthesis of hydrocarbons is a difficult task, the complexity of which lies in the need to have accurate knowledge of the patterns of influence technological characteristics on the composition of the product and on each other. The solution to this problem is to identify the process using mathematical modeling - drawing up equations that describe the kinetics of the process, the hydrodynamic situation in the reactor, mass and heat transfer.
To implement synthesis, a huge number of reactor designs have been created, and a huge number of options for organizing technological schemes, including circulation ones, have been proposed. In South Africa, the Sasol plant has been operating since 1983 with a total capacity of about 33 million tons per year of coal or 4.5 million tons per year of motor fuels. The technology is based on the gasification of coal using the Lurgi method under pressure followed by the synthesis of hydrocarbons using the Fischer-Tropsch method. Of the 3 Fischer-Tropsch synthesis methods (the process in a suspended layer of a dusty catalyst according to the Kellogg company method, high-performance synthesis on a stationary metal catalyst according to the Rurchemi-Lurgi method and liquid-phase synthesis according to the Rheinpreuben-Koppers method), only the 1st and partly the 2nd , based on work experience industrial enterprise in Sasolburg (South Africa), are relatively favorable for obtaining significant quantities of motor fuels.
One of the options for assessing the positive and negative parameters of hydrocarbon synthesis reactors is presented in the work. The creators' generalizations are given in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 - Fischer-Tropsch synthesis reactors