Any company or organization in the process of its activities not only has a useful result in the form of profit, but also incurs a certain share of costs, that is, the costs necessary to carry out activities in accordance with its specialization. The largest part of all expenses of a company or enterprise consists of costs for production factors (labor, capital, land, entrepreneurship, information, etc.), raw materials and supplies (fixed and auxiliary), as well as for the acquisition and use of fixed production assets.

Fixed production assets of the enterprise (OPF) represented by material capital, which is embodied in buildings, various structures (bridges, tunnels), machinery and equipment and other productive means of labor. Fixed assets have long service lives; as a rule, they are calculated in several years, and if these are buildings and construction structures, then in decades. This type of resource is not consumed in one production cycle, but serves for a long time and, as a result, is subject to wear and tear (breakage, obsolescence, etc.).

Revolving funds is a type of capital that is contained in raw materials (material capital), cash (financial capital), labor force(labor capital). In other words, these are resources that are the subject of labor, they contribute to the production process, create favorable conditions for the production of goods and services by putting them into circulation. For example, materials and raw materials are the primary source finished products, lubricating oils are a necessary product for continuous operation of equipment. Generally revolving funds are used and completely consumed in one production cycle; accordingly, they transfer their value to the manufactured product entirely and immediately.

Wear - This is the process of loss of initial usefulness and value by fixed production assets. Depending on the degree of impact and the reason for the unsuitability of fixed assets, two types of depreciation of the fixed assets are distinguished.

1. Physical deterioration can be presented as the loss of the original useful properties of those fixed production assets that are intensively used in the production process, depending on the rationality of such use. In other words, over long-term or irrational use, fixed assets tend to wear out, i.e., they can no longer be used in the production process and must be replaced.

Physical wear and tear can also be represented as a process of deterioration of the technical and economic characteristics of fixed assets, which occurs under the influence of the labor process, natural forces (for example, metal corrosion) or due to their non-use.

Physical wear and tear of the first degree is directly related to the rate and volume of production and is calculated as variable costs. Regular use of OPFs during the production process makes them of little use over time. This type of wear and tear is an inevitable phenomenon; sooner or later the company is forced to purchase new equipment due to the unsuitability of the previous one.

Physical wear and tear of the second degree determines the degree of destruction of those production assets that for some reason were not put into production (i.e. due to idle equipment) or were used extremely irrationally. It turns out that this type of wear characterizes the essence of the production process, shows the degree of its efficiency, rationality and is in no way related to the duration of use. These are the so-called fixed costs of the company, which have negative returns.

• 2. Obsolescence - is defined as a decrease in the value of the OPF that is not associated with the end of its service life. This situation may arise for the following reasons:
• 1) due to the emergence of modern productive and economical machines and machines, for example, in the process of developing innovative products. With the advent of new technologies, previous means of labor lose their usefulness and go out of circulation; they simply cannot compete with them. If we talk about the results, then, on the one hand, this leads to an increase in production efficiency as a whole, and on the other hand, it causes an increase in costs, which is associated with the write-off of old equipment before the end of its service life;
• 2) reduction in prices on the factor of production market. For example, if there is a fall in consumer demand in the real estate market, this causes the relative price of housing to decline. In this case construction organizations and it turns out to be extremely unprofitable for developers to carry out construction and invest huge capital in this process. At the same time, equipment, in this case cranes, lose their beneficial features. Thus, obsolescence, like physical wear and tear of the second degree, should be classified as fixed costs, since it also does not depend on the volume of products produced.

Wear and tear represents the loss of physical and moral characteristics of the OPF.

Physical wear and tear is the loss of the OPF of its original production and technical qualities as a result of work or inaction. Physical wear and tear in percentage and in value terms is established by the actual, technical, condition of the object as a whole and its most important parts, assemblies or service life.

Obsolescence is a premature depreciation of the general asset fund before the end of its physical service life.

Obsolescence of the first form as a percentage is determined by revaluing the general assets by comparing their full original cost with the replacement cost.

Obsolescence of the second form is established by comparing the technical characteristics of old and new OPFs.

Taking into account physical and moral wear and tear is necessary to correctly determine the replacement cost of assets, their service life and replacement, depreciation rates and amounts.

Depreciation is compensation in monetary form for the cost of depreciation of industrial assets, by gradually transferring their value to the products created in the production process.

The total amount of depreciation transferred to manufactured products is determined as the difference between the initial and liquidation value of the general fund.

Depreciation is calculated in accordance with the regulations on the procedure for calculating depreciation of fixed assets and intangible assets.

Depreciation, as the process of transferring the cost of fixed assets and intangible assets to the cost of products, works, services produced with their use in the process of entrepreneurial activity, includes the distribution in an equivalent manner of the cost of objects between reporting periods that together constitute the useful life of each of them , the systematic inclusion of depreciation charges in production or distribution costs.

Service life is the period during which fixed assets or intangible assets retain their consumer properties.

Standard service life - established by regulatory legal acts and or by a commission organized for the implementation of depreciation policy during the depreciation period of individual objects, general public funds and/or selected groups of items of depreciable property.

Depreciable cost is the value from which depreciation charges are calculated.

The annual rate of depreciation is calculated as the reciprocal of the standard service life of the object.

When operating fixed assets under conditions different from those accepted, when establishing standard service lives or useful lives, it is possible to adjust the annual depreciation rate of the object or its parts by applying correction factors.

Depreciation is calculated monthly. Depreciation is calculated in a linear and non-linear way.

The straight-line method consists in the organization accruing depreciation evenly over the years over the entire standard service life or useful life of an item of fixed assets or intangible assets.

The annual rates of depreciation in the first and each of the subsequent years of the life of an object for one owner are the same. The annual amount of depreciation is determined based on the depreciable cost and the standard service life or useful life by multiplying the cost by the accepted annual linear depreciation rate.

The non-linear method consists in the organization accruing depreciation unevenly over the years during the useful life of an object of fixed assets or intangible assets.

With the non-linear method, the annual amount of depreciation is calculated using the sum of numbers of years method or the reducing balance method with an acceleration factor of 1 to 2.5 times. The rate of depreciation in the first and each of subsequent years may be different. The sum of the numbers of years with the useful life of an object is determined by the formula:

HSP = C pi · (C pi +1) \ 2,

where Cpi is the useful life.

With the declining balance method, the annual amount of accrued depreciation is calculated based on the under-depreciated cost determined at the beginning of the reporting year and the depreciation rate calculated based on the useful life of the object and the acceleration factor adopted by the organization.

The productive method of calculating depreciation is to calculate depreciation based on the depreciated cost of the object and the ratio of natural indicators of the volume of products produced in the current period to the resource of the object.

Examples of depreciation calculation.

1 Linear method.

Annual depreciation rate = (1 / 5) · 100 = 20%.

Depreciation deductions = 120 · 20\100 = 24 thousand rubles.

2 Method of sum of numbers of years.

The depreciable cost of the object is 150 thousand rubles.

During operation, OPFs are subject to wear.

Depreciation is the loss of an object’s fixed assets of its consumer properties and replacement value.

There are two types of wear and tear: physical and moral.

Physical wear and tear is the loss of fixed production assets of their original qualities. Its size is influenced by such factors as the degree of equipment utilization (number of work shifts, hours of work per shift), the durability of the equipment (service life), the quality of equipment care, the level of qualifications of workers and their attitude towards OPF, etc.

Physical wear and tear occurs both as a result of the use of OPF (physical wear of the first kind), and when they are inactive under the influence of natural forces (physical wear of the second kind).

To characterize physical wear and tear, a wear coefficient is used, determined on the basis of the service life of the OPF.

If the period of actual use of the OPF (T F) is less than the useful life, then the wear rate (K F.I) is determined by the formula

where Tf is the period of actual use of the general fund, year;

T p.i – useful life of the general purpose fund, year.

If the actual use period is longer than the useful life, the wear rate is determined as follows:

where ТВ is the possible residual service life beyond the useful life, year.

The useful life of general financial assets is the period of time during which they generate income for the enterprise or serve to carry out the activities of the enterprise. The useful life of an item of fixed assets is determined by the organization when accepting the item for accounting.

When determining the useful life, organizations can use the “Classification of fixed assets included in depreciation groups” (Resolution of the Government of the Russian Federation dated January 1, 2002 No. 1).

Obsolescence– this is a premature (before the expiration of its useful life) loss (decrease) in the value of the general fund.

Moral wear and tear occurs before physical wear and tear and concerns mainly the active part of the OPF, i.e. machines and equipment.

There are two types of obsolescence of OPF. Depreciation of the first type means depreciation of the general fund due to the fact that similar funds in new production and technical conditions are produced at lower costs and become cheaper. This is due to the use of achievements scientific and technological progress and the growth of labor productivity in the sectors producing funds. The onset of obsolescence of the first type does not entail the replacement of equipment with cheaper equipment.

Obsolescence of the second type occurs as a result of the emergence of more modern, more productive equipment. Replacing old equipment with new will lead to an increase in the volume of products and, consequently, a reduction in its cost and an increase in profits. However, the company has not yet managed to pay for the equipment it uses, and to replace it it will have to look for additional sources of financing.

The relative value of obsolescence is determined by the formulas

where is obsolescence of the first type;

F P.S – initial cost of OPF, rub.;

F V.S – replacement cost, rub.

where is obsolescence of the second type;

P N(S) – productivity of new (old) equipment.

Depreciation, both physical and moral, can be complete or partial, which is why compensation can happen complete(purchase of new funds, capital construction, i.e. renovation of industrial enterprises) and partial(for physical – major repairs, for moral – modernization) (Figure 4).

are functioning

OPF WEAR

PHYSICAL MORAL

Fixed assets are company assets that serve for a long time and are replaced with others only as they wear out. Depreciation of fixed assets is considered to be the gradual loss of property's own use value. During operation or, conversely, downtime, any object of production assets consistently wears out - buildings are destroyed, spare parts and parts wear out, machines, vehicles and equipment fail. We will discuss OS wear, its types and calculations that allow us to determine the percentage of wear of an object in our article.

Depreciation of fixed assets: physical and moral

So, OS wear and tear is the loss of value during operation or inactivity. It can be physical or moral. Physical manifests itself as a loss of technical qualities and characteristics under the influence of time and production processes. Physical wear and tear is divided into productive (in which a loss of value occurred during operation) and unproductive (when an object wears out after being in storage for a long time).

Moral wear and tear is when the value of an object decreases as a result of the appearance on the market of its improved analogues with higher productivity and lower cost.

By studying the logic of physical and moral wear and tear, the duration of wear of a certain OS object is established. These studies form the basis for the calculated standard service lives (SLI) of property and depreciation rates.

Depreciation and amortization of fixed assets

In order to timely replace fixed assets with worn-out resources without damaging the company’s activities, it is necessary to provide a mechanism for transferring the value of retired assets to manufactured products. This is how the depreciation fund is replenished, the funds of which will subsequently be used to purchase new fixed assets. Only under this condition is reproduction of the PF possible.

Thus, depreciation and reproduction of fixed assets are inseparable categories, and the process of successively transferring the cost of fixed assets to manufactured products in order to accumulate funds for the reproduction of fixed assets is called depreciation. The sinking fund is a special reserve, which is a financial resource for capital investments.

Wear calculation

The transfer of the cost of fixed assets to the company's products is carried out by charging depreciation of fixed assets. It is based on the calculation of depreciation, based on the principle of gradualism. Depreciation expenses are considered to be amounts that form part of the cost of fixed assets and are then transferred to the price of the product. They form the cost item “depreciation” in the cost of the product. Their size is set as a percentage according to standards calculated on the basis of approved OS classifiers.

All fixed assets are divided into 10 depreciation groups, and the main criterion for division is the service life of the object. For example, the 1st group includes OSes with a service life of no more than 2 years, and the 10th group includes objects whose operation is expected to last over 30 years. Tax accounting is guided by the determination of the depreciation group of an object based on the classifier, accounting - establishes it based on considerations of expected operation.

The depreciation rate is the percentage of depreciation of fixed assets, the calculation formula of which is the ratio of one unit to the number of months of effective operation of the facility. We can assume that depreciation is an expense calculated as a percentage of the cost of the asset, allocated to production costs and included in the cost of the product.

Degree of depreciation of fixed assets

To determine the degree of wear, an indicator such as wear coefficient is used. It shows how worn the object is, i.e. the user will find out to what extent the upcoming replacement of the object is financed as it wears out. It is calculated by the ratio of the amount of accrued depreciation to the original cost of the object.

For example, a company operates a machine with wear and tear, i.e. depreciation charges, in the amount of 20,000 rubles. The initial cost of the machine is 100,000 rubles. Let's calculate the degree of depreciation of fixed assets - this can be done using the formula:

K = AO / PS x 100, where AO is the amount of accrued depreciation, and PS is the original cost.

K = 20,000 / 100,000 x 100 = 20%

This means that the object is worn out by 20%, i.e. The accumulation of the depreciation fund for the purchase of a new machine is 20%. Thus, the depreciation of the enterprise's fixed assets is equal to the amount accumulated for their reproduction.

Depreciation rate of fixed assets: formula for calculating the balance sheet

You can find data on accrued depreciation of fixed assets in the notes to the balance sheet. They are in the form of Appendix No. 5 to the balance sheet, which was part of the financial statements until 2011. Despite the fact that the mandatory nature of this form has been cancelled, it is used to explain the dynamics of OS in the period under review. The formula used to calculate the amount of depreciation of fixed assets, in relation to the explanations, looks like this:

K = gr.5 lines 5200 f.5 / gr. 4 lines 5200 f.5 x 100

The depreciation coefficient of a fixed asset is considered by analysts together with the operating system serviceability coefficient, calculated as the ratio residual value to the original one. These indicators characterize the state of the OS and have analytical significance, often conditional, since big role The depreciation method plays a role.

Depreciation of the equipment is a partial or complete loss of consumer value and the cost of equipment both during operation and during inactivity. In this case, two types of wear and tear are distinguished: physical and moral. Physical wear and tear occurs due to aging of equipment and loss of its performance, and moral wear and tear occurs due to loss of competitiveness.

Physical wear and tear refers to the loss of the means of labor of their original qualities. Physical wear and tear is the loss of fixed assets of their consumer value as a result of wear of parts, exposure to natural factors and aggressive environments.

Obsolescence is manifested in the fact that outdated OPFs in their design, productivity, efficiency, and quality of products lag behind the latest models.

Reproduction of industrial enterprises on an expanded basis, their renewal, and covering losses from moral and physical wear and tear when they are not fully used require the mobilization of huge funds both from society and from individual production cells.

Wear can occur due to many reasons: aging of equipment, loss of its competitiveness, etc.

The intensity of wear depends on the design features of the OPF, the quality of manufacture, the nature and operating conditions, the state of maintenance and other factors.

The nature of wear manifests itself in the same or almost the same way when exposed to different kinds property, be it real estate, energy, work, information, machinery and equipment. General requirements this boils down to the following: generalization (systematization) of accumulated experience in assessing wear of all types; description and justification of the nature of occurrence of all types of wear; standardization of factors influencing the amount of all types of wear; proposal and justification of new approaches; development of a methodology for assessing wear and tear when estimating the cost of machinery and equipment for various purposes; Preparation teaching materials as a basis for the development of recommendations (standards) for determining and calculating wear of all types; Creation software tool in the form of an application for use in programs for computer assessment of the cost of machinery and equipment.

Almost everywhere in the accompanying documentation for the product, the manufacturer reports the conditions for the impact of various factors associated with improper operation on the life of the product. From the point of view of assessing value, these parameters are often decisive when assessing the condition of a product. Information about this is collected by interviewing operational personnel (technical services, chief engineer, chief mechanic), as well as from the results of studying operational documents, if any. Naturally, the appraiser needs knowledge of the production technology and the product itself. This involves mandatory inspection of both the product itself and the products produced on it. This allows you to get Additional information about the condition of such products. It is possible to collect new data from a survey of technical control service workers. Sometimes you can get necessary information as a result of studying technological maps on products, results of sampling of products, data from factory laboratories on metrological characteristics of both equipment and products manufactured with its help.

It is known that during the operation of OPFs there comes a period when they need to be repaired, improved or replaced with new ones. To repair an old car or buy a new car you need cash. They are created and accumulated during the operation of the machine, since in the process of labor part of its value is transferred to the newly created product. Compensation for depreciation of OPF and their reproduction is carried out through depreciation. As a result, the company quickly updates equipment and expands production based on the latest technology.

Depreciation and depreciation are not identical concepts. Depreciation in cash expresses the degree of depreciation of the capital asset. It may not coincide with the amount of depreciation at certain periods of the year, since OPFs wear out unevenly, and depreciation is accrued in equal shares throughout the year.

Depreciation is compensation in monetary form for the cost of depreciation of the capital asset. It is a method of gradually transferring the value of funds to manufactured products. Deductions intended to reimburse the cost of a worn-out part are called depreciation. Depreciation charges accumulate to form a depreciation fund.

The amount of depreciation is the amount of depreciation of the general fund, expressed in monetary form, for a certain period.

The depreciation rate is the amount of depreciation charges established as a percentage for each type of general public fund for a certain period.

There are two main methods of calculating depreciation: uniform (linear) and accelerated (non-linear). With the straight-line method, depreciation is calculated monthly based on its monthly rate. If accelerated, it is calculated by dividing the annual depreciation rate by 12.

Reducing the degree of wear and tear is facilitated by the renewal of general operating assets as a result of the introduction of new means of labor through new construction, reconstruction and technical re-equipment, as well as the write-off of physically worn out and obsolete general operating assets from the balance sheet of enterprises.

An increase in the number of production equipment, an increase in its power, loads and degree of automation - all this causes a significant increase in the volume and complexity of repair and maintenance. In production conditions, increasing the reliability and durability of equipment is possible only with the correct methods of its operation and repair. One of the most important conditions for ensuring High Quality repair is strict compliance with existing GOSTs regulating the procedure for handing over equipment for repair, its implementation and acceptance of repaired equipment.

The company uses repair work and conservation of fixed assets as a way to reduce equipment wear.

It becomes obvious that all types of repairs are economically feasible. Attention should be paid to the fact that the amount of actual costs for carrying out all types of repairs in real conditions, as a rule, exceeds the amount of depreciation charges. There are several reasons for this, but the main ones are outdated standards of contributions for the restoration of fixed assets and inflationary processes. In this case, the products accumulate irreparable cumulative wear. Often repairs are carried out by operating personnel and the costs of repairs are not reflected in accounting documents. Over time, repair costs naturally increase. Between repairs, total operating costs also increase. This is due to some loss of consumer characteristics of the product - wear of equipment, wear and loss of fixtures and tools, and an increase in the percentage of defects. This is associated with a decrease in product performance. Ultimately, all this increases costs and reduces the competitiveness of manufactured products.

You can reduce costs for unused fixed assets by leasing temporarily unloaded equipment, conserving fixed assets, and selling property.

Financing repair work carried out by including expenses in the cost of production and sales of products with the subsequent allocation of funds from the proceeds from sales to ensure repairs. To ensure uniform inclusion of repair costs in the cost of products (works, services), a repair fund is formed.

Each enterprise should ensure the accumulation of funds (sources) necessary for the acquisition and restoration of permanently worn-out fixed assets. Based on a study of the patterns of physical and moral wear and tear, the period of economic wear and tear of a given type of means of labor is determined, which underlies the approved standard service life of the OPF.