Many troubles, difficulties, disappointments, annoyances and problems are brought to parents by speech, reading and writing disorders in their children. What it is? First of all, in such cases, there is a violation of the formation of a word from individual sounds - a violation of the functions of speech and a violation of the ability to understand speech. These are very complex functions, and it is no coincidence that the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes of the brain, in fact, the entire brain, are involved in their implementation. After all, we are talking about the ability to instantly capture and automatically merge together the most complex sounds of speech into a single word, understanding and pronouncing it.

Let's take the floor "balancing". It is pronounced in two or three seconds, and there are fourteen sounds in it, and ten of them are different! And a person instantly catches them all and connects them into one word. The shortest pause - and another word follows. And in the whole phrase there are semantic punctuation marks, and subtext, the finest nuances. A person has perfectly mastered the language of another nation, he speaks it clearly, without errors, but people for whom this language is native instantly pick up a different accent. The ability to speak and understand speech is something ingenious that is given to everyone! And the child is brilliant, assimilating up to five years, assimilating to perfection, the ability to speak and understand speech.

And how difficult the ability to understand speech and speak is, every adult who masters a foreign language knows. He quickly learns the alphabet lexicon, reads, writes, but colloquial speech may never be comprehended. And everyone knows how painfully you listen to someone else's speech at first. At the same time, there are gifted ones who go through the stage of listening quickly; there are those who listen for years; and there are those who never listen. There is exactly the same children with impaired listening function. It could be alalia when a child may not understand speech at all; it can also be erased forms, when both speech comprehension and vocabulary are depleted. This happens with delays in psychoverbal development, organic brain damage, with childhood autism, and in every case of general underdevelopment of speech. And with all this, you should contact a child psychoneurologist in a timely manner.

But that's not all. The teacher dictates something to the children, and they instantly put what they hear into a written text. And how easy it is for some, and how, Lord, it is hard for others! And for those who find it difficult, dysgraphia. Such a child knows grammatical rules, but ... is terribly illiterate in writing. He doesn't seem to see what he's writing! Here he wrote: "Corva". They ask him: "What did you write?" And he confidently declares: "Cow." They say to him: "Where is the letter" o "?" He peers painfully at what he has written and either does not see the mistake, or embarrassedly corrects it.

A child with dysgraphia often writes in block letters, because he is not given calligraphy - subtle, correct and beautiful writing out letters; he has to write in block letters because his handwriting is terrible. He often does not master the automated, clear, unchanging "bank signature" until the end of his life. Children draw with enthusiasm already in the middle group of kindergarten. Children also try to draw, who later, at school, will have dysgraphia, but their hand "does not work." And they eventually give up painting to avoid ridicule. Naturally, they are not able to reproduce geometric shapes. The circle they draw looks like a gear wheel. And the time will come when drawing lessons will become their nightmare.

All this, as a rule, is combined with underdevelopment and general fine motor skills. A mother buttons up a dysgraphian child to get him ready for school and laces up his shoes! Such children awkwardly throw the ball and clumsily hit it. They are not athletes, and they suffer from peer ridicule in physical education classes. They can't cut bread without cutting themselves. They cannot spread butter on bread: the butter will be on the fingers, the sleeve, but not on the bread. Children with dysgraphia are dramatically clumsy. Obviously, they cannot be trained to work on the machine, they cannot be watchmakers, television masters, because their fingers, their hands are like sticks. They are "handless". They are elephants in a china shop.

Obviously, children with dysgraphia have organic brain damage, most often due to aggravated childbirth. It is obvious that they have impaired hand-eye coordination, that they have impaired fine motor skills, that they have awkward fingers. And, having caught all this already from the middle group of kindergarten, parents will not only visit a neurologist with such a child in a timely manner, but will tirelessly contribute to the development of fine motor skills of the child. Here, as they say, one should lay down with bones so that the child's fingers become dexterous and their movements are accurate! Practice, practice, practice - and even the bunny will learn to beat the drum...

There are children who for a long time (until the fifth or sixth grade, or even later) experience difficulties in reading, to the extent that they read by syllables in the third or fifth grades or read slowly, difficultly, tensely, often - monotonously, so, how a person who does not speak it reads a difficult text in a foreign language. And this - dyslexia.

Dyslexia, like dysgraphia, if it is difficult to correct, if not completely incurable, can distort the fate of a person. The teacher, of course, requires that the mother tongue be mastered well. There is not a single secondary professional and higher educational institution, where there would be no entrance exam in the native language. And this is fair. You need to know your native language! However, for children with dyslexia or dysgraphia, mother tongue at school tends to be a torment; doing well in other subjects, they often duplicate the third, fifth, and sixth grades due to their inability to master the grammar of their native language to the required extent.

As a result, their development is delayed, they become complex because of the "rain" of twos, they are not allowed into the tenth grade. As for the entrance exam in the native language when entering the institute, we will cite one case from life on this occasion: several dozen technically gifted young men did not get into the Mining Institute in their time, and literate girls took their places. And when the time came for graduates to go to work on geological expeditions, in mines, there was no one to send to these men's jobs ... The girls got married, had children, changed their profession. Potentially gifted boys did not become engineers, geologists, or miners. But Andersen, Bohr, Rodin, Churchill, Edison, Einstein and others suffered from dyslexia, dysgraphia!

And children with dyslexia or dysgraphia should be understood not to injure them, not to "complex". Not to understand such children, not to help them find themselves in this life, in their vocation, in worthy self-affirmation, which is vital for every person, not to encourage them, not to be patient with them - a terrible sin, similar to mockery of a hunchback.

Such children need to seek compensation in what they are usually gifted with. They are often gifted mathematically or musically, they think, see, feel in an original way, they often have brilliant constructive abilities, a talent for deep scientific, economic, political, psychological analysis. And if they remain with certain difficulties in reading and writing, they should not be prevented from finding their destiny, realizing their calling... In any case, teachers should not allow those suffering from dyslexia or dysgraphia to distort the fate of their native language ...

The study of writing and reading disorders in children begins at the end of the last century and coincides in time with the introduction to the most developed countries Europe of public schooling available to the broad masses of children. At the same time, it became obvious that, in addition to children who are unable to learn due to mental retardation, there are others who cannot acquire literacy, despite normal intellectual development.

In 1896, the English physician P. Morgan described a 14-year-old boy who had great difficulty in reading and writing. He was a quick-witted child, doing well in algebra, but with great difficulty he learned the alphabet and could not learn to read. In 1897, a similar case was described by the Englishman J. Kerr, and in 1905 the work of S. Thomas was published, summarizing the observations of one hundred cases. such violations. Later, the symptoms of such conditions were carefully studied and detailed in the works of S. Orton (1937), M. Critchley (1970), Z. Matejiek (1972) and other researchers.

The definition and terminology for more than half a century of studying the problem have changed repeatedly, and yet, a single, satisfying formulation has not yet been found. No one doubts that there are children with selective reading or writing disorders. However, the essence of this phenomenon is understood differently. For some, this is one of the manifestations of the underdevelopment of oral speech [Spirova L.F., Yastrebova A.V., 1988], “the primary disorder of the sound structure in written speech”. For others, it is a genuine, idiopathic monosymptomatic disorder.

SPECIFIC READING DISORDERS - DYSLEXIA

Speaking of dyslexia, we mean conditions whose main manifestation is a persistent, selective inability to master the skill of reading, despite a sufficient level of intellectual and speech development for this, the absence of impairments to auditory and visual analyzers, and optimal learning conditions. The disorder is based on violations of specific cerebral processes, which, in general, constitute the main functional basis of the reading skill.

The existing classifications of reading disorders can be divided into four categories:

1) Etiopathogenetic, in which there are primary reading disorders and secondary forms of reading disorders caused by organic brain pathology, sensory defects, low intelligence, neurotic disorders;

2) Symptomatic classifications, in which the typology of errors is taken as the basis of systematics. At the same time, kinetic (or verbal) dyslexia and static (or literal) dyslexia are distinguished.

3) Psychological classifications, in which the alleged mechanisms of reading impairment are taken as the basis for systematics. In this case, "phonemic" dyslexia and dysgraphia, optical or optical-gnostic dyslexia and dysgraphia, spatial-apraxic, motor, mnestic and semantic are distinguished.

4) Clinical and pathogenetic classification of writing and reading disorders by Z. Matejiek, summarizing many years of clinically oriented psychological psychiatric hospitals in Dolnye Pochernitsy. The author combines all cases of dyslexia, meaning reading and writing disorders, into the following groups:

a) Hereditary;

b) Encephalopathic;

c) Mixed (hereditary-encephalopathic);

d) neurotic;

e) Unspecified.

SPECIFIC WRITING DISORDERS - DYSGRAPHY

Based on the analysis of existing studies on this issue and our own observations, we propose the following definition of dysgraphia. Dysgraphia should be called a persistent inability to master writing skills according to the rules of graphs (that is, guided by the phonetic principle of writing), despite a sufficient level of intellectual and speech development and the lack of gross violations sight or hearing. The resulting errors can be divided into several categories.

a) errors in sound-letter symbolization (replacement of letters that are phonemically or graphically similar),

b) mistakes graphic modeling phonemic structure of the word (omissions, permutations, insertions of letters, assimilation, perseveration),

c) errors in the graphic marking of the syntactic structure of the sentence (lack of dots at the end of the sentence, capital letters - at the beginning, the absence of spaces between words or the creation of inadequate spaces in the middle of words).

Of particular note are errors that repeat verbal paraphrases (the so-called "stammering in writing"). From our point of view, these errors reflect the problems of oral rather than written speech and can only conditionally be included in dysgraphic ones.

According to the literature, dysgraphia occurs 2-3 times more often than dyslexia [Kovshikov V.A., Demyanov Yu.G., 1967; Valtin A. Et al., 1981; Kosc L., 1983]. Reading disorders in most cases are accompanied by writing disorders. However, according to our observations, serious difficulties in reading do not always contribute to dysgraphia. The literature also describes cases of so-called "pure" dyslexia, in which writing skills do not suffer. Thus, although these two groups of syndromes overlap, they do not coincide. There is reason to believe that dysgraphia and dyslexia may have significantly different causes and mechanisms.

written language reading disorder dyslexia

The article is written on the basis of studying the literature on this topic, as well as Internet sites. It contains research by psychologists on such a topical topic as "Dysgraphia and dyslexia. What is it? And how to live with it?" I hope that the collected material will be interesting.

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Why do reading and writing disorders occur?

The process of developing reading and writing is very complex. It involves four analyzers:

speech motor, which helps to carry out articulation, that is, our pronunciation;

speech-auditory, which helps to select the desired phoneme;

visual, which selects the appropriate grapheme;

motor, with the help of which the grapheme is translated into a kinema (a set of certain movements necessary for recording).

All these complex recodings are carried out in the parietal-occipital-temporal regions of the brain and are finally formed at the 10-11th year of life.

The letter begins with a motive, motivation - this level is provided by the frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex.

Of great importance for mastering the processes of writing and reading is the degree of formation of all aspects of speech. Therefore, violations or delays in the development of phonemic perception, lexical and grammatical aspects, sound pronunciation at different stages of development are one of the main causes of dysgraphia and dyslexia.

If a child has impaired speech hearing, then, of course, it is very difficult for him to learn to read and write. Indeed, how can he read if he does not clearly hear sounding speech? He is also unable to master the letter, because he does not know what sound this or that letter stands for. The task is further complicated by the fact that the child must correctly capture a certain sound and present it as a sign (letter) in the fast flow of speech he perceives. Therefore, teaching literacy to a child with defective speech hearing is a difficult pedagogical problem.

The risk group includes children who do not suffer from speech disorders, but who have insufficiently clear articulation. They usually say about them: “Barely moves his tongue ...”, - they are called “mumbles”. A fuzzy command from fuzzy articulation, and even with the underdevelopment of phonemic processes, can also cause fuzzy responses, which leads to errors in reading and writing.

Along with speech (phonemic) hearing, people have a special vision for letters. It turns out that just seeing the world around us (light, trees, people, various objects) is not enough to master writing. It is necessary to have a vision for the letters, allowing you to remember and reproduce their outlines.

This means that for full-fledged learning, a child must have satisfactory intellectual development, speech hearing and special vision for letters. Otherwise, he will not be able to successfully master reading and writing.

The features of speech formation and, as a result, the appearance of dysgraphia and dyslexia, are also influenced by more “deep” factors. For example, unequal development of the cerebral hemispheres.

What area of ​​the brain is “responsible” for writing and reading? It turns out that the center of speech in most people is in the left hemisphere. The right hemisphere of the brain “manages” object symbols, visual images. Therefore, peoples whose writing is represented by hieroglyphs (for example, the Chinese) have a better developed right half of the brain. Writing and reading among the inhabitants of China, unlike the Europeans, will suffer from malfunctions on the right (for example, with a brain hemorrhage).

The anatomical features of the central nervous system explain the facts known to doctors of good drawing abilities in dysgraphics. Such a child hardly masters the letter, but receives commendable reviews from the drawing teacher. This is as it should be, because in this child the more “ancient”, automated area of ​​the right hemisphere is not altered in any way. Disagreements with the Russian language do not prevent these children from “explaining themselves” with the help of a drawing (as in ancient times - through images on rocks, birch bark, and clay products).

Speech therapists sometimes pay attention to the "mirror" nature of the letters of patients. At the same time, the letters are turned upside down - as in the image in the mirror. Example: "C" and "Z" open to the left; “Ch” and “R” are written in the opposite direction with the prominent part... Mirror writing is observed in various disorders, but the doctor looks for obvious or hidden left-handedness in such a phenomenon. Searches and often finds: mirror flips of letters - salient feature lefties.

The hereditary factor also plays a role, when the child is given the underdevelopment of brain structures, their qualitative immaturity. In this case, as a result of the difficulty of cortical control in mastering written language, the child may experience approximately the same difficulties as parents at school.

There is a genetic predisposition to the presence of this defect, as this disorder is observed in several members in separate families. Reading impairment often becomes apparent by grade 2. Sometimes dyslexia compensates over time, but in some cases it remains at an older age.

The presence of congenital features that affect the occurrence of dyslexia and dysgraphia explains the fact that often both types of disorders are observed in the same child. At the same time, signs of mental retardation in such a baby are most often not observed. The child turns out to be at odds with the Russian language, although he copes well with mathematics and other subjects where, it would seem, more intelligence is required.

Another interesting observation of psychologists: dyslexia occurs in boys 3-4 times more often than in girls. About 5-8 percent of schoolchildren are dyslexic.

Sometimes, however, bilingualism in the family can be the cause of dysgraphia. IN Lately, due to large changes in the geography of society, when many are forced to leave their homes, learn a second language, this reason is becoming more and more relevant.

The cause of dyslexia and dysgraphia can also be a disorder in the systems that provide spatial and temporal education.

Special literature cites data from the Claperade Institute, according to which, at the basis of dyslexia, one can observe the actions of a negative mother-child relationship. Thus, a child who is force-fed, who becomes accustomed to resist in relation to food, acquires the same manner in relation to intellectual food. This resistance, which he discovers when communicating with his mother, is then transferred to the teacher.

Even things that at first glance seem insignificant are important. For example, very often, when reading, it is difficult for a child to follow the line, his eyes glide. Scientists, after conducting research, suggest that if in infancy the baby lies so that the TV screen falls into his field of vision, then the eye muscles get used to the chaotic movement. Therefore, in preschool age useful exercises to prepare the eye muscles for sequential tracking of the line.

What should I do if my child has dyslexia or dysgraphia?

First of all: don't lose heart. Such guys are quite capable of mastering reading and writing if they persevere. Some will need years of practice, others months. The essence of the lessons is the training of speech hearing and letter vision.

It is best not only to contact a speech therapist, but also to deal with the child yourself. Speech therapy classes are usually conducted according to a certain system: various speech games are used, a cut or magnetic alphabet for folding words, highlighting the grammatical elements of words. The child must learn how certain sounds are pronounced and what letter this sound corresponds to when writing. Usually, a speech therapist resorts to oppositions, “practicing” how hard pronunciation differs from soft, deaf - from voiced ... Training is carried out by repeating words, dictation, selecting words according to given sounds, analyzing the sound-letter composition of words. It is clear that they use visual material that helps to remember the outlines of the letters: “O” resembles a hoop, “F” - a beetle, “C” - a crescent ... You should not strive to increase the speed of reading and writing - the child must thoroughly “feel” individual sounds ( letters).

It’s also a good idea to contact a neuropsychiatrist: he can help speech therapy classes by recommending certain stimulating drugs that improve memory and brain metabolism. The main thing to remember is that dyslexia and dysgraphia are conditions that require the close cooperation of a doctor, speech therapist and parents to determine.

There are several exercises to help your child deal with dysgraphia:

1. Every day for 5 minutes (no more), the child crosses out the given letters in any text (except for newspapers). You need to start with one vowel, then move on to consonants. Options can be very different. For example: cross out the letter a, and circle the letter o. You can give paired consonants, as well as those in the pronunciation of which or in their difference the child has problems. For example: p - l, s - w, etc.

After 2-2.5 months of such exercises (but on condition - daily and no more than 5 minutes), the quality of writing improves.

2. Write short dictations in pencil every day. A small text will not tire the child, and he will make fewer mistakes (which is very encouraging ...) Write texts of 150 - 200 words, with a check. Do not correct errors in the text. Just mark in the margins with a green, black or purple pen (by no means red!) Then give the child a copybook to correct. The kid has the opportunity not to cross out, but to erase his mistakes, write correctly. The goal was achieved: the mistakes were found by the child himself, corrected, and the notebook is in excellent condition.

3. Give the child exercises for slow reading with pronounced articulation and copying the text.

When dealing with a child, remember a few basic rules:

1. Throughout the course of special classes, the child needs a favorable treatment. After numerous twos and threes, unpleasant conversations at home, he should feel at least a small, but success.

2. Refuse to test your child for reading speed. It must be said that these checks have long been causing fair criticism from psychologists and speech pathologists. It’s also good if the teacher, understanding what stress the child is experiencing during this test, conducts it without accents, hidden. But it also happens that they create a complete environment for the exam, call a child alone, put a clock in sight, and even check it not by their own teacher, but by the head teacher. Maybe for a student without problems it doesn't matter, but our patients can develop neurosis. Therefore, if you really need to test for reading speed, do it in the most gentle way possible.

3. Remember that you can not give exercises in which the text is written with errors (to be corrected).

4. The "more reading and writing" approach won't work. Smaller is better, but better quality. Do not read large texts and do not write large dictations with a child. At the first stages, there should be more work with oral speech: exercises for the development of phonemic perception, sound analysis of the word. Numerous mistakes that a child with dysgraphia will inevitably make in a long dictation will only be recorded in his memory as a negative experience. 5. Do not praise much for small successes, it is better not to scold or be upset when something does not work out for the child. It is very important not to show your child your emotional involvement: do not get angry, do not get annoyed and do not rejoice too violently. Better is a harmonious state of calmness and confidence in success - it will much more contribute to sustainable good results.

Dysgraphia and dyslexia: what parents need to know whose children have difficulty reading and writing.

In recent years, there have been enough a large number of schoolchildren who have difficulty mastering their native language as an academic subject. Parents complain about the inattention of children, restlessness, unwillingness to learn, non-humanitarian mindset, etc. In some cases, parents are right, but sometimes there are more serious things behind this: physiological, psychological, neurological and speech problems. Difficulties in mastering the skills of writing and reading defectologists call dysgraphia and dyslexia. And very often these two diagnoses are side by side. If there is one thing, then there is another.

Dysgraphia (from the Greek "dis" - difficulty, violation, deviation from the norm; "grapho" - write, depict) - a partial violation of the writing process, in which persistent and repeated errors are observed: distortions and replacements of letters, distortions of the sound-syllabic structure of the word, violations of the continuity of writing individual words in a sentence, agrammatisms in writing.

Writing as a type of speech activity involves fixing one's own thoughts with the help of a certain graphic code. Writing is the most complex type of activity; all parts of the cerebral cortex are involved in its formation. The psychophysical basis of writing is the interaction of the work of various analyzers - speech-motor, auditory, visual, hand-motor. When writing, there is an interaction of such mental processes as thinking, memory, attention, imagination, external and internal speech.

The writing process consists of five psychophysical components:

Acoustic (hear and highlight sound).

Articulatory (clarify the sound, the composition of the word, establish the sequence of sounds).

Visual (representation of a graphic image of sound, translation of the sound structure into graphic signs).

Retention in memory of graphic symbols and their correct spatial organization.

The presence of sustained attention, knowledge of spelling and punctuation rules.

When writing, you need to make a phonemic analysis of the word, correlate each phoneme with a letter, write the letters in a certain sequence.

The writing process goes through several stages: understanding what we will write about, its programming; speech and graphic code. The process of writing is actually the reverse of the process of reading.

Writing a word is much more difficult than reading it. Difficulties in mastering writing are due to the fact that either each of the processes necessary for writing a word, or some part of them, is imperfect in a child. The insufficiency of phonemic analysis complicates the process of dividing words into component parts and prevents the accurate recognition of each of the selected sounds. Due to the shortcomings of pronunciation, it is difficult to perform sound analysis and synthesis of words. Due to a violation of the motor sphere (insufficient coordination of the corresponding movements of the muscles of the fingers, instability of the entire hand, etc.), errors are observed in the inscription of letters, spatial orientation on a sheet of paper, line.

Work on the prevention of dysgraphia should begin at preschool age. Even then, a number of children may have prerequisites for the development of dysgraphia in the future. If a three-year-old child says "I eat with a spoon" (by analogy with "I cut with a knife"), then this fits into the framework of normal speech development, because. here the form of the instrumental case, typical for the Russian language, is used, although it is incorrect for this noun. But if a child says "I eat a spoon", then this is out of the scope. At preschool age, we are talking about the elimination of agrammatisms in the oral speech of children, and with successful solution of this task, they will no longer appear in written speech. If classes with a speech therapist did not bring the desired result, or the child did not study with a speech therapist, and parents see great amount mistakes when writing a child, then you should resume classes (or start them). Dysgraphia will not disappear by itself, it needs to be corrected and corrected.

Dyslexia (from the Greek "dis" - violation, deviation from the norm, difficulty and "lego" - to read) are conditions, the main manifestation of which is a persistent, selective inability to master the skill of reading. Persistent inability to master syllables and automated reading of whole words, which is often accompanied by insufficient reading comprehension. The disorder is based on violations of specific cerebral processes ("cerebro" - the brain (lat.)), which, in general, constitute the main basis of the reading skill.

Reading is a type of speech activity, during which the letter code is translated into sound and the understanding of the material read is carried out. The psychophysical basis of the reading process is the interaction of the work of the visual, speech-motor, auditory analyzers and such mental processes as thinking, speech, memory, attention, and imagination. Reading is one of the types of written speech, which is later and complex view than oral speech. Reading is formed on the basis of oral speech.

correlate existing ideas about the visual image of a speech unit (words, phrases, sentences) with what he saw (written) - see;

correlate the visual image of a speech unit with its auditory-motor image - pronounce;

to correlate the visual image of a speech unit with its meaning - to understand.

Four stages of reading are defined depending on the mechanism of the reading process:

Acquisition of sound-letter notation.

The stage of analytical reading, in which the unit of reading is a letter-syllable and understanding lags behind pronunciation (reading by syllables).

The stage of formation of synthetic reading techniques, in which the unit of reading is the word, and understanding approaches pronunciation.

The stage of automated (synthetic) reading, the reading unit is a phrase, sentence or paragraph, and understanding is ahead of pronunciation.

Skills necessary for the successful formation of the reading process:

Formation of phonemic perception (differentiation and distinction of phonemes).

Formation of phonemic analysis (separation of sounds from speech).

Formation of visual analysis and synthesis (determining the similarities and differences of letters).

Formation of spatial representations (left - right, top - bottom, large - small, on, under, behind, near, near, etc.).

The formation of visual mnesis (the ability to memorize the visual image of letters).

Formation of coherent oral speech (classification of objects; generalization of objects; correct and grammatically correct answers to questions; explanation of the purpose of objects).

Emotional development of the child (sustained attention, ability to work independently, quick switching from one task to another, clear implementation of adult instructions, etc.)

Well developed fine and gross motor skills.

Developing the ability to communicate with peers.

The risk group for children with dyslexia includes those students who have:

phonemic hearing disorder;

violation of spatial perception;

violation of the interaction between auditory, visual and kinesthetic perceptions and ideas (movement, position in space);

behavioral and performance disorders;

poor memorization of signs;

poor differentiation of sounds and letters;

poor merge of sounds;

difficulties in the implementation of the sound analysis of the word.

With dyslexia, a child can read the same word both correctly and incorrectly, an erroneous reading looks different with each attempt. Many children try to get around reading difficulties by guessing words, while relying on the initial part of the word or on the similarity of sound, older children - on the context. Reading comprehension is either difficult or completely absent (mechanical reading).

There are also such variants of dyslexia, when, with a very low quality of reading technique, a large number of mistakes made, the child can quite fully retell the main content of what he has read. There are also cases of the opposite nature: with a rather fluent reading technique, the child understands almost nothing of what he has read.

It is difficult to completely eliminate dysgraphia and dyslexia, but this does not mean that you do not need to work on it. You should seek help from a school speech therapist or defectologist, clearly follow all the recommendations of a specialist and a positive result will definitely come.

DYSGRAPHY is a partial violation of the writing process, in which persistent and repetitive errors are observed: distortions and replacements of letters, distortions in the sound-syllabic structure of a word, violations of the spelling of individual words in a sentence, agrammatisms in writing.

Dyslexia is a partial violation of the reading process, manifested in repetitive errors of a persistent nature.

TYPES OF DISGRAPHS:

AGRAMMATIC DYGRAPHY - associated with underdevelopment of the grammatical structure of speech; can manifest itself at the level of words, phrases, sentences and texts.

ACOUSTIC - due to a disorder of phoneme differentiation and manifested in the replacement of letters corresponding to phonetically close sounds (at the same time, sounds are pronounced correctly in oral speech).

ARTICULATOR-ACOUSTIC - which is based on the reflection of incorrect perception and pronunciation of sounds in writing, reliance on incorrect pronunciation.

OPTICAL - which is associated with the underdevelopment of visual gnosis, analysis, synthesis, spatial representations and manifests itself in the substitutions and distortions of letters in writing.

Optical dysgraphia includes:

Mirror letter;

Verbal dysgraphia, based on which isolated letters are pronounced correctly, and when writing a word, there are distortions, replacements of letters of an optical nature;

Literal dysgraphia, in which there is a violation of the reproduction of isolated letters.

TYPES OF DYSLEXIA:

AGRAMMATIC - due to the underdevelopment of the grammatical structure of speech.

PHONEMATIC - associated with the underdevelopment of the functions of the phonemic system, sound-letter analysis (in some cases, the functions of phonemic perception, analysis and synthesis may be underdeveloped in children).

OPTICAL - manifests itself in the difficulties of assimilation and in the mixing of graphically similar letters, as well as their mutual substitutions.

Optical dyslexia includes:

Mirror reading;

Verbal dyslexia, which manifests itself in violations when reading words;

Literal dyslexia, manifested in violations in the isolated recognition and discrimination of the letter.

MNESTIC - manifested in the difficulties of mastering all the letters, in their undifferentiated substitutions.

SEMANTIC - manifested in a violation of the understanding of the words, sentences, text read with technically correct reading.

The article is based on the study of books and Internet sites.

Introduction 2

1. general characteristics writing disorders (dysgraphia) and reading disorders (dyslexia) 4

2. Causes and symptoms of dysgraphia and dyslexia 6

Conclusion 14

References 15

Introduction

Over the past few decades, research junior schoolchildren, experiencing learning difficulties, show that their number has increased from 15% to 73%. Their vocabulary is poor, they do not know how to correctly retell the text and build a sentence, they make many mistakes in writing. At the same time, they spend unreasonably much time and effort on doing homework. The main reasons for this problem are the lack of attention and fine motor skills, the lack of reading skills and independence of action.

In 1877, A. Kussmaul drew attention to the violation of writing and reading, as an independent pathology of speech activity. Subsequently, many works appeared in which descriptions of children with various reading and writing disorders were given. In the 30s. In the 20th century, psychology, pedagogy, began to study reading and writing disorders. Gradually, a certain relationship is established between these disorders, on the one hand, and defects in oral speech, on the other.

Interest in the problems of early detection, prevention and correction of specific writing disorders (dysgraphia) in children is due to the fact that writing as an activity plays an important role in a person’s life: it stimulates his mental development, provides general education, and influences personality formation.

In addition, in recent years, in scientific papers devoted to the study of reading disorders, it is noted that dyslexia is a consequence of insufficient formation of the functional basis of the reading process, i.e., verbal and non-verbal higher mental functions that ensure the formation of this skill.

The aim of the work is to study the etiology of writing and reading disorders.

The object of the study is dysgraphia and dyslexia as speech disorders.

The subject of the study is the causes and symptoms of dysgraphia and dyslexia.

1. Describe such speech disorders as writing disorders (dysgraphia) and reading disorders (dyslexia).

2. Describe the causes and symptoms of dysgraphia and dyslexia.

Research methods: analysis of psychological and pedagogical literature on the research problem; systematization and generalization of the studied material.

The structure of the work includes an introduction, two paragraphs of the main part, a conclusion and a list of references.

1. General characteristics of violations
writing (dysgraphia) and reading (dyslexia)

Most researchers tend to understand dysgraphia as writing disorders that occur in children as a result of the lack of formation of certain operations involved in this process.

Normal writing is a complex form of speech activity, a multilevel process. Various analyzers take part in it: speech-auditory, speech-motor, visual, general motor. Between them in the process of writing a close connection and interdependence is established. The structure of this process is determined by the stage of mastering the skill, tasks and nature of writing. Writing is closely connected with the process of oral speech and is carried out only on the basis of a sufficiently high level of its development (7, p. 126).

Automated hand movements are the final step complex process translation of oral speech into written. The writing process has a multi-level structure, includes a large number of operations. In an adult, they have an abbreviated, folded character.

The letter begins with a motivation, a motive, a task. A person knows what he writes for: to fix, save information for a certain time, transfer it to another person, induce someone to act. He mentally represents the plan of the written statement, the semantic program, the general sequence of thoughts (9, p.62).

One of the most difficult operations of the writing process is the analysis of the sound structure of a word. To spell a word correctly, you need to determine its sound structure, the sequence and place of each sound. The sound analysis of a word is carried out by the joint activity of the speech-auditory and speech-motor analyzers. At the initial stages of mastering the skill of writing, the role of pronunciation is very large. It helps to clarify the nature of the sound, to distinguish it from the original sounds, to determine the sequence of sounds in the word (6, p. 74).

The next operation is the correlation of the phoneme extracted from the word with a certain visual image of the letter, which should be from all others, especially from graphically similar ones. Then follows the motor operation of the writing process - the reproduction of the visual image of the letter with the help of hand movements. Simultaneously with the movement of the hand, kinesthetic control is carried out.

So, it can be almost unequivocally argued that the lack of formation of any of these functions can cause a violation of the process of mastering writing - dysgraphia.

In turn, dyslexia is a partial specific disorder reading process, manifested in repetitive errors of a persistent nature. The reading of a child with dyslexia can be characterized as slow, with stops and incorrect (12, p. 8).

It has been proven that children with dyslexia experience significant difficulties in mastering the skill of reading and, as a rule, writing, despite the normal level of intellectual development, the absence of visual, auditory analyzers and pedagogical neglect. Dyslexia in children is manifested in the inability to reach a level of development in reading skills, as well as writing and writing, that would be proportional to their mental abilities.

Thus, dyslexia is often accompanied by dysgraphia and dysorphography. For children with dysorphography, the main difficulty is the solution of the spelling problem: it is difficult for them to see the “dangerous place” in the word, it is difficult to find a test word, having learned the rule well, the child cannot apply it in writing (11).

So, as we can see, the phenomena considered - "dysgraphia" and "dyslexia" - are quite closely related to each other, but at the same time, each violation has its own characteristic features.

2. Causes and symptoms of dysgraphia and dyslexia

There are many scientific interpretations regarding the origin of dysgraphia and dyslexia, which indicates the complexity of this problem and to date this issue is debatable.

Many scientists note a hereditary predisposition to dysgraphia. They believe that this is due to the fact that children inherit from their parents a qualitative immaturity of the brain in its individual areas. It manifests itself in specific delays in the development of a certain function. In turn, dyslexia is not inherited.

Most researchers studying the etiology of dysgraphia also note the presence of pathological factors affecting the prenatal, natal and postnatal period. The etiology of dysgraphia is also associated with the impact of biological and social factors (4).

Functional causes may be related to the impact of internal (for example, long-term somatic illnesses) and external (incorrect speech of others, lack of speech contacts, bilingualism in the family, insufficient attention to speech on the part of adults) factors that delay the formation of mental functions involved in the reading process. .

Dysgraphia is often caused by organic damage to the areas of the brain involved in the writing process (alalia, dysarthria, aphasia).

With dysgraphia, children have difficulty mastering writing: the exercises they performed, dictations contain many grammatical errors. They don't use capital letters, they don't use punctuation, they have terrible handwriting. In children with dysgraphia, individual letters are incorrectly oriented in space. They confuse similar letters: “Z” and “E”, “P” and “b” (soft sign). They may not pay attention to the extra stick in the letter "Sh" or the "hook" in the letter "Sh". Such children write slowly, unevenly; if they are not in the mood, then the handwriting is completely upset. They often refuse to attend classes or complete written assignments.

According to the opinion, dysgraphia is caused by the following reasons (11):

A) Delay in the formation of functional systems important for writing, due to harmful effects or hereditary, genetic predisposition. In this case, as a result of the difficulty of cortical control in mastering written language, the child may experience approximately the same difficulties as parents at school.

B) Violation of oral speech of organic origin.

C) Difficulties in the formation of a functional asymmetry of the hemispheres in a child.

D) Delay in the child's awareness of the body schema.

E) Violation of the perception of space and time, as well as the analysis and reproduction of spatial and temporal sequences.

He analyzed in most detail the causes of writing disorders in children (5) and identified three groups of phenomena in the etiology of writing disorders:

1) Constitutional prerequisites: individual features of the formation of functional specialization of the cerebral hemispheres, the presence of writing disorders in parents, mental illness in relatives.

2) Encephalopathic disorders caused by harmful effects in the periods of pre-, pre- and postnatal development. Damage at the early stages of ontogenesis often causes abnormalities in the development of subcortical structures. Later exposure to pathological factors (birth and postnatal development) affects the higher cortical regions of the brain to a greater extent. Exposure to harmful factors leads to deviations in the development of brain systems. The uneven development of brain structures adversely affects the formation of functional systems of the psyche. According to the data of neuropsychology (research and) the functional immaturity of the frontal parts of the brain and the insufficiency of the neurodynamic component of mental activity can manifest itself in a violation of the organization of writing (instability of attention, non-retention of the program, lack of self-control) (2, p. 91).

The anatomical features of the central nervous system explain the facts known to doctors of good drawing abilities in dysgraphics. This is to be expected, because in such a child the more "ancient", automated area of ​​the right hemisphere is in no way altered. Disagreements with the Russian language do not prevent these children from “explaining themselves” with the help of a drawing.

He associates three variants of desontogenesis with the pathogenesis of writing disorders: delayed development of mental functions; uneven development of individual sensorimotor and intellectual functions; partial underdevelopment of a number of mental functions.

3) Unfavorable social and environmental factors, which include: discrepancy between actual maturity and the beginning of literacy education; the volume and level of literacy requirements not correlated with the child's capabilities; discrepancy between the methods and pace of teaching the individual characteristics of the child.

So, difficulties in mastering writing arise mainly as a result of a combination of three groups of phenomena: biological insufficiency of the brain systems that arise on this basis of functional insufficiency; environmental conditions that place increased demands on retarded or immature mental functions.

It has been noticed that sometimes dysgraphia compensates over time, but in some cases it remains at an older age.

The question of the symptoms of dyslexia remains debatable. A number of authors believe that dyslexia is a monosymptomatic disorder that manifests itself only in reading errors (,
and etc.). Others believe that this disorder should be considered as a syndrome that includes, in addition to the shortcomings of the reading process itself, a complex of speech and non-speech symptoms (, etc.).

Until recently, in the domestic literature, dyslexia was associated mainly with disorders of oral speech: its aspects and the lexical and grammatical structure (,
, and etc.).

Research recent years a close relationship was shown between reading disorders not only with speech deficiencies, but also with the lack of formation of such mental functions as intellectual activity, memory, visual-spatial representations, visual-motor and auditory-motor coordination, as well as with features of functional asymmetry (8).

Another interesting observation of psychologists: dyslexia and dysgraphia occur in boys 3-4 times more often than in girls. About 5 to 8 percent of schoolchildren suffer from dyslexia and dysgraphia.

It is important that at preschool age it is possible to identify the prerequisites for dysgraphia, which will manifest itself in children with the beginning of schooling if appropriate preventive measures are not taken. The following prerequisites for dysgraphia should be indicated (3):

1) Lack of auditory differentiation of acoustically similar sounds: hard - soft; voiced - deaf, whistling - hissing, as well as sounds [p], [d], [l], which further leads to interchangeability in writing.

2) The presence of complete sound substitutions in oral speech, the incorrect pronunciation of words in the process of writing during the period of literacy training inevitably leads to the corresponding letter substitutions.

3) The lack of formation of the simplest types of tic analysis of words available to preschool children. In particular, these types of analysis include the following: recognition of a sound against the background of a word; highlighting a stressed vowel from the beginning of a word and a final consonant from the end of a word; determining the approximate place of a sound in a word.

4) Lack of formation of visual-spatial representations and visual analysis and synthesis. This makes it difficult for a child to differentiate similar letters in the process of literacy, which leads to optical dysgraphia.

5) The lack of formation of grammatical systems and, which is manifested in the child's incorrect use of word endings in oral speech. This leads to agrammatic dysgraphia.

Often both types of disorders: dyslexia and dysgraphia are observed in the same child. At the same time, signs of mental retardation are most often not observed. Thus, the inevitability of the appearance of all the main types of dysgraphia in children can be determined in the lower grades, and accordingly, everything possible can be done to eliminate it at the initial stage, until the violation of written speech has led the child to lag behind in all subjects in the future.

So, he believes that errors in dysgraphia are persistent and specific, which makes it possible to distinguish them among the errors that are characteristic of most children of primary school age during the period when they begin to master writing. Dysgraphic errors are numerous, repetitive and persist for a long time, associated with the lack of formation of the lexical and grammatical structure of speech, underdevelopment of optical-spatial functions, the inferior ability of children to differentiate phonemes by ear and in pronunciation, analyze sentences, carry out syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis (6) .

Interestingly, researchers characterize the types of dysgraphic errors in different ways. For example, he identifies the following groups of errors in writing, correlating them with one or another type of dysgraphia:

Distorted spelling of letters;

Replacement of handwritten letters that have a graphic similarity, as well as denoting phonetically similar sounds;

Distortion of the sound-letter structure of the word (permutations, omissions, additions, perseverations of letters, syllables);

Distortions in the structure of the sentence (separate spelling of the word, continuous spelling of words, contamination of words);

Agrammatisms in writing (6, p. 112).

But not all authors distinguish groups of specific errors, correlating them with various types dysgraphia. In particular,
defines the main groups of errors, characterizing the possible mechanisms and conditions for their appearance in children's writing. For example, errors at the letter and syllable level can be due to (11):

Unformed actions of the sound analysis of words (omission, rearrangement, insertion of letters or syllables);

Difficulties in differentiating phonemes that have an acoustic-articulatory similarity (mixing paired voiced and voiceless consonants; labialized vowels;

Sonorant, whistling and hissing sounds, affricate); kinesthetic similarity in writing letters (replacement of letters that have identical graphomotor movements);

Phenomena of progressive both in oral and written speech, associated with the weakness of differential inhibition (distortion of the phonetic content of words: perseveration - stuck on any letter, syllable, or repetition in a word; - anticipation of a letter or syllable).

Errors at the word level may be due to difficulties in isolating speech units and their elements from the speech flow (violation of the individualization of words, manifested in the separate writing of parts of the word:

Prefixes or initial letters, syllables resembling a preposition, union,;

In word breaks during confluence of consonants due to weak articulatory fusion; in the continuous spelling of service words with the next or previous word, the continuous spelling of independent words);

Gross violations of sound analysis (contamination - the connection of parts of different words);

Difficulties in the analysis and synthesis of parts of words (agrammatism in the form of word formation errors: incorrect use of prefixes or suffixes; assimilation of various morphemes; incorrect choice of the form of the verb) (1, p.14-15).

Errors at the sentence level may be due to the insufficiency of language generalizations, which does not allow schoolchildren to “catch” categorical differences in parts of speech; violations of the connection of words: coordination and control (agrammatism, manifested in errors in changing words according to the categories of number, gender, case, time).

Writing disorders caused by a disorder of elementary functions (analyzer) are not considered as dysgraphia. IN modern theory it is also not customary to classify writing as a dysgraphic error, which has a nature and is due to pedagogical neglect, impaired attention and control, as a complex speech activity.

Essential for the diagnosis and organization of psychological and pedagogical correction of dysgraphia is its differentiation from the position of the development of the defect, proposed. The author identified the following four groups of writing (and reading) disorders, taking into account the age of children, the stage of learning to read and write, the severity of disorders and the specifics of their manifestations (10):

1) Difficulties in mastering writing. Indicators: fuzzy knowledge of all letters; difficulties in translating a sound into a letter and vice versa, when translating a printed grapheme into a written one; difficulties of sound-letter analysis and synthesis; reading individual syllables with clearly learned printed characters; writing under the dictation of individual letters. They are diagnosed in the first half of the first year of study.

2) Violation of the formation of the writing process. Indicators: mixing of written and printed letters on various grounds (optical, motor); difficulties in retaining and reproducing the semantic alphabetic row; difficulty in merging letters into syllables and merging syllables into a word; reading letter by letter; writing off written letters from printed text is already being carried out, but independent writing is in the process of formation. Typical mistakes in writing: writing words without vowels, merging several words or splitting them. It is diagnosed in the second half of the first and at the beginning of the second year of study.

3) Dysgraphia. Indicators: persistent errors of one or different types. It is diagnosed in the second half of the second year of study.

4) Dysorphography. Indicators: inability to apply spelling rules in writing according to the school curriculum for the corresponding period of study; a large number of spelling errors in written works. Diagnosed in the third year of study.

So, the causes of digraphia and dyslexia are diverse and can be due to both external and internal factors. The symptomatology of the phenomena under consideration plays an important role for their diagnosis and correction. At preschool age, the following necessary prerequisites for writing should be formed: aural discrimination of all speech sounds, including acoustically and articulatory close ones (voiced - deaf, soft - hard, whistling - hissing, R-L-Y); correct pronunciation of all speech sounds; possession of the simplest types of analysis available to preschool children (selecting a sound against the background of a word; determining the place of a sound in a word (beginning, middle, end); highlighting a stressed vowel sound from the beginning and end of a word).

Conclusion

In the process of work, we analyzed the psychological, pedagogical, speech therapy and methodological literature on this topic and came to the conclusion that reading disorders (dyslexia) and writing disorders (dysgraphia) are the most common forms of speech pathology. From the usual, common to all, the so-called "physiological" errors or growth errors, these errors differ in persistence, specificity, multiplicity and have certain, similar causes and mechanisms.

For many decades, the theoretical development of the problem of dysgraphia and dyslexia was carried out mainly by representatives of speech therapy science. Even in the current critical situation, it should be recognized that the speech therapy approach to the study of these phenomena has fully justified itself, since it is impossible to deny the deep organic connection between oral and written speech.

The causes of dyslexia and dysgraphia can be organic and functional, biological and social. Reading and writing disorders can be caused by organic damage to the cortical areas of the brain involved in the process of reading and writing, delayed maturation of these brain systems, and disruption of their functioning. Reading and writing disorders can be associated with long-term somatic diseases of children in the early period of their development, as well as with adverse external factors.

Since the violations we are considering are amenable to prevention and correction, this issue should be given Special attention, since it is the path of prevention that should become the most basic in solving this problem. Already at preschool age, according to a number of signs, it is possible to foresee in advance which of the children is “threatened” by the appearance of dysgraphia and dyslexia, to outline a plan.

List of used literature

Accurate, correct oral and written speech acts as necessary condition for the formation of a successful personality. At the same time, helping to master the language and speech is an important task not only for parents, but also for teachers and speech therapists. Success can only be achieved through close cooperation. If a child has violations of oral and written speech, then an important role is assigned to a speech therapist, since it is he, as a specialist, who will allow him to realize his goals. In the modern world, you can find a huge amount of methodological literature, which describes ways to overcome violations with sound pronunciation.

No matter how sad it may be, but the fact remains: due to the violation of one structural component in the general speech system, other violations follow. These disorders include: general underdevelopment of speech, disorders in the process of reading and writing, memory impairment, concentration of attention, changes in verbal-logical thinking, etc.

Not every child is able to easily learn to read and write. From the point of view of adults, this is elementary; in fact, teaching a child to write and read is one of the most difficult tasks. Even if a child is talented, smart, and in many ways superior to his peers, mistakes in writing and reading are not ruled out. Problems can be different: a child can write all the words together, skip letters in words, and sometimes he can make several from one word.

On the part of many parents and teachers, these errors are attributed to the inattention of the child. All that teachers can recommend to parents in this case is to write more sweat dictation. This period is difficult not only for parents, but also for the child himself. The child begins to have a negative attitude towards writing at school. In order to prevent this from happening, it is important to be able to analyze the mistakes of the child. The non-randomness of such “ridiculous” mistakes that become systematic is the reason for contacting a speech therapist. Errors of this type indicate that the child has dysgraphia.

D sgraphia - typical mistakes of a persistent nature when writing

Teacher experience primary school allows you to say that in the class before 30% of students have various kinds of writing disorders. If for an adult the writing process is already automated, then for a child this is a huge number of problems. Writing is understood as a complex form of speech activity with a multi-level process. When writing, speech-auditory and speech-motor, visual and general-motor analyzers are involved in close connection. In addition, success in writing directly depends on the degree of development of oral speech. The more correctly a child is able to distinguish between the sounds of speech, combine them and isolate them in a general stream, the more correct is written speech.

To write a word for a child, it is important:

1. be able to determine the structure of its sounds, know the sequence and place of each sound;
2. correctly correlate the selected sound with a certain image of the letter;
3. using hand movements to reproduce the letter.

To write a sentence, you need to speak it, mentally build it, remember the correct order of writing, break the sentence into words, highlight the boundaries in each word.
But Not every child manages to follow these rules, in particular, they have auditory differentiation of sounds, their incorrect pronunciation, inability to analyze sounds and synthesis, violation by lexico-grammatical fundamentals, lack of visual analysis and synthesis, lack of spatial representations. As a result, the process of mastering writing occurs with various disorders. These violations are called - dysgraphia, translated from the Greek "grafo" - writing.
Dysgraphia is a specific writing disorder that is associated with many typical mistakes, which are persistent in nature, due to the lack of formation on the part of higher mental functions. All these functions are involved in the process of mastering writing skills. Does your child need speech therapy?
But what if there is no specialist? After all, it is not always possible for teachers and parents to help and provide qualified assistance to the child. Is there a way out of this situation?
In this case, it is important that the primary school teacher and parents be able to distinguish between errors related to specific dysgraphic ones.

What are dysgraphic errors?

Errors arising from the unformed auditory perception and phonemic processes:

• gaps in the words of vowels: brook - stream, pshchat - squeak, mrkov - carrots;
• omissions in the words of consonants: kvarira - apartment;
• gap in the syllables of the word: beki - squirrels;
• vowel substitutions: food - food, sesen - pines, soft - soft;
• consonant substitution: tva - two, chacha - thicket, harvest - harvest, tokazyvaed - proves;
• permutations of letters and syllables: mokolo - milk;
• missing endings and syllables: forward - forward, on the gate - on the gates, duplicate - duplicate;
• adding unnecessary letters and syllables to words: children - children, denaktat - deanery;
• word change: malni - soapy, teank - teapot;
• merging two or more words and dividing them at your own discretion: war and peace - war and peace, in sho - everything;
• inability to divide the text into sentences, continuous writing of sentences: Snowflakes fell to the ground. White cover. The frost grew stronger and bound all the rivers, the birds became hungry. - Snowflakes fell to the ground with a white blanket. The frost grew stronger and bound all the rivers. The birds got hungry.
• omission of a soft sign in words: big - big, how many - how many, rushed - rushed.

Mistakes due to lack of form lexico-grammatical sides of speech:

• violations of the agreement of words: from an apple branch - from an apple branch, the sun appeared - the sun appeared, big boxes - big boxes;
• control violations: uphill - downhill; rushed off in the pond - rushed off to the pond, the sofa is sitting - sitting on the sofa;
• replacing words with similar sounds: raft - fruit;
• separate spelling of prefixes and continuous spelling of prepositions: vsadu - in the garden, on the floor - on the floor, on the booze - swollen;
• omissions in a sentence.
  

Errors caused by the lack of formation of spatial perception and visual recognition, the inability to distinguish between analysis and synthesis:

Errors associated with the inability of children to learn a large amount of school material, as well as the inability to memorize and use spelling rules previously learned in writing:

• unstressed vowel in the root of the word: bed - bed, weight - temple;
• spelling of voiceless and voiced sounds both in the middle and at the end of the word: dup - oak, krushka - mug;
• designation softening consonants;
• capital letter in proper nouns and at the beginning of a sentence.

Currently, there is another group of errors that are dysgraphic, only if they are stable. For children who have this type of error, the phrase is used: "What they hear is what they write."

The classification of errors is compiled according to the reasons for their occurrence, which will allow teachers and parents not only to identify the causes of difficulties, but also to correctly determine the type of violations of the writing process, and therefore be able to plan work to overcome these violations.

Special literature contains various classifications dysgraphia, but each of them is based precisely on the causes of violations.

The main types of violations of the letter include:

D isgraphy articulatory-acoustic

The main cause of this type of violation is the incorrect pronunciation of speech sounds. The child writes words depending on their pronunciation, thus reflecting his pronunciation defects, but only in writing.

D acoustic graphics - the basis is phonemic recognition, differentiation of phonemes.

Violation of differentiation and recognition of close speech sounds are the cause of this type of impairment. When writing, the child replaces letters with whistling and hissing, voiced and deaf, hard and soft sounds, that is: p-b, t-d, y-o, i-e, s-z, f-v, k-g, w-h, sh-f, s-c, t-c.

Dysgraphia arising from violations of language analysis and synthesis

The main reason for its occurrence is the difficulty in dividing the text into sentences, and sentences into words, words into syllables and sounds.

Typical mistakes are:

• omissions in words of consonants and vowels;
• changing letters in places;
• adding unnecessary letters to words;
• both omissions and additions and permutations of syllables;
• separate and continuous spelling of words;
• separate spelling of the root or prefix, or vice versa, the continuous spelling of prepositions with other words.

D agrammatical writing

The reason for the occurrence is the difficulty in constructing the grammatical structure of speech.
When writing, this is manifested by changes in endings during the declension of words, incorrect use of prepositions, number and gender, omissions of sentence members, violations of the sequence of words in a sentence, violations of semantic connections in individual sentences and between sentences.

D optical printing

The reason for the occurrence is the lack of formation of functions in visuospatial areas. It is manifested by substitutions and changes in the writing of similar handwritten letters in their writing - graphics, for example: sh-t, d-v, d-b, i-sh, p-t, e-s and a number of others.

Only when correct definition type of violation of the process in the letter by parents and teachers, the main direction of work with the child will be outlined, with the help of which you can help him competently and correctly express his thoughts in writing.