The basis of the psychology of communication is the ability to highlight moments effective implementation negotiations, conversations and apply it in practice, to be psychologically literate in a conversation, the formation of a system of knowledge about effective, partnership communication.

In everyday life, various kinds of relationships arise between people, such as love, friendship, partnerships, and the psychology of communication is the basis of all these relationships. The process of the psychology of relations is necessary for a person to acquire his own individuality, recognition in society and confirmation of his significance.

What does the Psychology of communication say about the manifestation of creativity in communication? Of course, it is. Communication gives a person a new impetus, joy, pleasure, which help a person cope with boredom, the routine of everyday life, raises him to new heights and levels in his life. professional activity.

Communication is the most complex, multi-level process of establishing and developing relationships between people, which is the exchange of information, perception and understanding of another person by a person.

Practicing psychologists point out that effective communication important is the culture of speech, the culture of gestures. However, in the first place (and this has long been noted and folk wisdom) is the ability to listen to the interlocutor and delve into his interests. The ability to understand another and empathize with him is the most important factor in the development of the individual, its improvement both in the communicative aspect and in the informational aspect, since communication with another is a very significant source of information.

A feature of modern communication is the ability to use technical means for remote communication. At the same time, there is a motivation for anonymity, for the speed of expressing one's emotions, often despite the content and aesthetics of the form of communications. Besides. modern technologies stimulate communication within large teams. Having examined the forums on the Internet, one can note the presence of all of the above points on them. There are still new trends in communication. Including communication via SMS has not been sufficiently studied by psychologists and sociologists. However, their popularity, including popularity among children and youth, is extremely high. The degradation of the language and the substitution of personal communication with virtual ones have already been noted. An example of effective communication on network technologies in social and cultural activities is distance education (only the most thoughtful and successful methods).

Numerous functions of communication undoubtedly generate a large number of its types. Given the complexity of communication, its types can be classified according to many criteria. Let us dwell only on some of them, which, in our opinion, are of scientific and practical interest.

In terms of the effectiveness of joint interaction and the effects achieved, there is necessary(interpersonal contacts, without which joint activity becomes almost impossible), desired(interpersonal contacts that contribute to successful solution production, educational and other tasks), neutral(interpersonal contacts that do not interfere, but do not contribute to solving problems) and unwanted communication (interpersonal contacts that make it difficult to achieve the goals of joint interaction). The indicated system of types of interpersonal communication is related to the question of the productivity and unproductivity of interpersonal contacts and to the criteria for their optimality.

Participants in communication can be both direct specific individuals and indirect groups of people. This is about interpersonal and mass communication. Interpersonal communication is manifested in direct contacts, which, in turn, are determined and regulated by the entire system of social relations, the conditions of social production, the interests of people and groups.

IN interpersonal form of communication usually they use linguistic and non-linguistic means of information exchange, mechanisms of psychological influence, etc. It provides for the establishment of direct contacts between communication partners, allows you to directly respond and influence the interaction process. That is why interpersonal communication is also called direct, direct, in contrast to mediated mass communication (mass communication is anonymous, it is not directed at a specific individual, but at large masses of people and is carried out more often with the help of mass media).

It is important to emphasize the emotional nature of interpersonal communication, because in it people are oriented, first of all, to their internal goals, values ​​and needs. And although the content of such communication, its forms can flexibly change and adapt to the image of a partner that is formed in the process of interaction, at the same time it provides its participants with considerable freedom in choosing the method of communication, in deciding whether to extend or terminate it. In this situation, interpersonal communication is based on emotional attractiveness, the similarity of partners and depends little on their social roles and statuses.

In a situation mediated type of communication(mass) between the participants in the interaction there is a certain spatio-temporal distance. Under such conditions, communication is predominantly one-sided: a person can only perceive information coming to him from other generations, societies or eras, but cannot transmit any information to him.

Such mediated communication, which is carried out, for example, through literature, works of art or other cultural creations, has an extremely importance to enrich the relationship of a person with the world, takes it beyond the immediate environment, makes the person involved in the entire human culture and in all the events that take place in the world. Thanks to various forms of mediated communication, an individual can realize his unity with the society in which he lives, or with humanity as a whole, feel like an integral part of them.

If communication is organized around psychological problems proper (establishing emotional relationships with another person, creating conditions for the development of an individual, etc.), it is called personality oriented. In the case when communication is limited to interaction only at the business level, it has a formal character and is called official(role-playing).

Person-oriented (or personal) type of communication involves the allocation of a purely psychological aspect in it, that is, the inner world of a person. This does not mean at all that we are talking about only one communication partner. It is in relations with another person that an individual can fully act and manifest himself as a person, as a subject of interaction.

So, personal communication provides for such situations of interaction in which the participants in communication enter personally. The main purpose of this type of communication is to ensure the existence of the inner world of the individual, the perception of oneself and the other as individuals, upholding the rights to a personal attitude to the phenomena of the external world. This is not about selfish aspirations, not about defending "one's own" claims, but about asserting the universal human rights and properties of a person as a person.

As in any other form of communication, in personal communication partners exchange information about their own experiences, feelings, external events, etc. However, it is hardly advisable to reduce personal communication only to the information process.

The informational aspect of communication here is rather of a secondary nature, and the foreground is human inner world.

M. Bobneva on this occasion notes that no matter how interesting and important information is for partners, it is introduced into the content of personal communication only on condition that its presentation allows the real properties and qualities of a person to manifest, for example, altruism, the properties of not only listening, but also hear.

The same, according to the researcher, can be said about the significance of joint activity for personal communication or the world external to a person: the performance of any activity covers personal communication, provided that personality traits are manifested and realized in it; external events are also introduced into personal communication, provided that in connection with their assessment, comprehension, experience, the personality of the participants in communication is really manifested, i.e. provided that external events become the meaning of the partners' inner world and can be presented in communication.

Based on this, communication is evaluated by partners as truly personal only in the case when kindness as a property of a person making contact is directly manifested in the process of communication. In this interpretation, personal communication differs from confidential communication, the main characteristic of which is the communication of particularly significant information. At the same time, credulity as a personality trait is an essential feature of all types of communication, including personal communication.

Official (role-playing) communication involves relationships mediated by social or professional roles. This type of communication may have personal elements, but they are updated to the extent that they do not diverge from the restrictions imposed by business relations.

Role-playing communication is extremely common in modern society. It provides interaction in such situations as "leader - subordinate", "student - teacher", "buyer - seller", "doctor - patient", etc. It is the role expectations of the participants in communication that determine how the partner is perceived, how his behavior is evaluated, how the individual evaluates his own behavior, what he is as a performer of the role.

In a situation of role-playing communication, a person is not free to choose a strategy for his behavior, she is deprived of a certain spontaneity of her reactions, actions, feelings, and sometimes internal reactions. And although each person brings individuality and uniqueness to their social roles (there are no and cannot be identical doctors, lecturers, teachers), images, actions, ideas are set by the personality from the outside, by the social position: “At present, I am the leader, which means ...” , "I am a doctor, respectively...".

Formal (role-playing) communication allows a person to realize himself as a member of society, in a certain group, a spokesman for the interests of a certain social stratum, the creator of various social relations. Being a participant in official communication, a person acquires a number of important values ​​- a sense of belonging to a community, social security, etc.

Business (role-playing) communication heterogeneous in nature. For example, role-playing communication in the field of economics differs from communication in law enforcement agencies etc. If a person does not follow the rules of official negotiations, this indicates serious problems in vocational training experts in a particular industry.

The inability to distinguish official conversation basic, succinctly and competently express your thoughts can result in significant losses of working time. Variety business communication is representative communication, which involves the interaction of people as representatives of certain states, social groups or institutions.

The peculiarity of this type of communication is that it is usually carried out in the form of negotiations. Under such conditions, the relationship of sympathy - antipathy is reduced to a minimum, compared with the ability of people to represent their community, organize and plan joint actions.

By another classification by varieties of business communication is cognitive(its goal is to expand the partner's information fund, transfer information necessary for professional activities, etc.); convincing(causes certain feelings in business partners, forms value orientations and attitudes, convinces of the legitimacy of certain interaction strategies, etc.), expressive(forms a psycho-emotional mood in the partner, prompting the necessary social actions), suggestive(has the goal of influencing a business partner in order to change motivation, value orientations, behavior, etc.) and ritual(fixes and maintains conventional relations in the business world, ensures the regulation of the social psyche in large and small groups, preserves the ritual traditions of the institution, firm; the value of individuality in ritual communication is minimized, participants are equal in their right to satisfy those important social needs for which they entered into ritual) types of communication.

By type of connections, which are established between the participants in the interaction, there are two types of communication monologue And dialogic.

Monological type of communication characterized by a one-way direction of information. That is, one of the participants in the interaction expresses his thoughts, ideas, feelings, without feeling the need to receive feedback from the partner. Such a situation can lead to positional inequality of communication partners: one participant is an influential person who is endowed with activity, conscious goals and the right to realize them, and the other is considered by the first as a passive person, one who, although he has goals, is not so significant, than his own. Under such conditions, we are dealing with "subject-object" communication. There are two varietiesmonologue communication: imperative And manipulative.

Under imperative communication Usually they understand an authoritarian, directive form of influence on a partner with the aim of forcing certain actions or decisions, as well as exercising control over his behavior and attitudes. As a rule, imperative communication is used to establish control over the external behavior of a partner, because the inner world of a participant in communication is primarily the property of a person and it is extremely difficult to influence him in order to change.

The final formula of the imperative is clear and not veiled: "Do as I command!". At the same time, the means of influence are orders, demands, encouragement, commands, prohibitions, intimidation, etc. The foregoing does not mean that imperative communication has only a negative load and coloring.

There are quite a few social activities and situations in which the use of the imperative is fully justified both from the standpoint of the goal and from the ethical side of the interaction. For example, the imperative type of communication is common in military regulations, especially in extreme conditions.

Regarding teaching and educational practice, here the possibilities of using the imperative type of communication are also limited. Although with the help of orders, commands, prohibitions (“do not shout”, “do not run”, etc.) it is possible to achieve the external fulfillment by the child of certain requirements of adults, however, the norms and values ​​transmitted in this way do not become her internal personal beliefs and, therefore, remain external manifestations of behavior in the corresponding period of time.

Manipulative type of communication, being a common type of monologue communication, involves influencing the interaction partner in order to achieve their hidden intentions and goals. Like the imperative, manipulation aims to achieve control over the behavior and thoughts of another person. However, the main difference is that in the conditions of manipulative communication, the partner does not inform his interlocutor about the true goals, their conversations are hidden or veiled or replaced by others. Therefore, manipulation can also be defined as the hidden control of people and their behavior. Hidden is both the very fact of the impact and its purpose. At the same time, the partner must retain the illusion of independence in making a decision or committing an act.

Dialogic type of communication helps a person to discover a reality that is different from his own: the reality of another person, his feelings, ideas, opinions, in general - the reality of the world around him as the interaction partner sees it.

According to the tradition of Russian psychology, dialogue is considered in several planes.

Dialogue is:

1. primary, generic form of human communication, which determines the usefulness mental development personality;

2. the leading determinant of this development, which ensures the functioning of the internalization mechanism, when the external primary interaction passes "inside" a person, thereby determining its individual psychological originality;

3. principles and methods of studying a person, which are implemented by reconstructing the content of the internal semantic fields of the subjects of dialogical interaction;

4. a communicative process that takes place according to its own laws and according to its internal dynamics;

5. a certain psychophysical state that unfolds in the interpersonal space between people who communicate; this state is akin to infantile experiences, states of emotional comfort during physical contact between mother and child;

6. a high level of organization of relations and communication between people, which is most organically close to the primary nature of the human psyche, and therefore is optimal for normal mental functioning and personal development people, the realization of their needs, aspirations and intentions;

7. effective method pedagogical, ideological, intimate, psycho-correctional and other influences; creative process joint search for truth, beauty and harmony.

Being adequate to the subject-subject character of the human nature, dialogue is acceptable for organizing productive interpersonal contacts between people.

In total, in the doctrine of dialogue, the relations that have developed between specific people are often divided into d ialogical, anti-dialogical and indifferent. At the same time, dialogic relations are subject-subject, indifferent and anti-dialogical relations are subject-object.

Dialogic relations arise when one participant in communication perceives a holistic image of another as a desired partner of interaction based on the recognition of his belonging to a certain community, to which he refers himself.

This implies the idea that the parties of dialogic interaction form a collective subject of communication. The presence of a dialogic relationship does not mean that only a feeling of friendship and love should arise between partners (although these feelings are not denied under certain circumstances).

Dialogue relations are conditionally divided into several subspecies:

• intimate interpersonal, where the interaction between partners is aimed at developing the very process of identifying and maintaining interpersonal relationships (friendship, love);
• relations of cooperation, in which the presence of dialogic communication and activity is aimed at achieving a common goal;
• agonistic relationship characterized by competition to achieve common purpose, but each approaches this goal separately, while each side, moving towards achieving the goal in its own way, strictly adheres to certain rules;
• antagonistic relations that arise in the presence of fundamentally irreconcilable contradictions between partners, they try to eliminate these contradictions in different ways, setting themselves different goals, but with the obligatory observance general rules humane behaviour.

It should be noted that dialogical relations, such as antagonistic ones, often lead to sharp conflicts, especially when it comes to issues vital to both sides.

It happens that one of the parties often violates the rules of humane dialogic interaction. In this case, dialogic relations turn into anti-dialogical, inhumane, i.e. those in which one or both partners of interaction perceive each other as an object, a thing, fundamentally denying the existence of any commonality between them.

INTRODUCTION
The needs of modern society, its spiritual and material spheres make the problem of communication extremely relevant. Communication is of great importance in the formation of the human psyche, its development and the formation of reasonable, cultural behavior. Through active communication with psychologically developed people, thanks to the wide opportunities for learning, a person acquires all his highest productive abilities and qualities - turns into a personality.
If from birth a person was deprived of the opportunity to communicate with people, he would never become a civilized, culturally and morally developed citizen, he would be doomed to remain a semi-animal until the end of his life, only externally, anatomically and physiologically, resembling a person. This is evidenced by numerous facts described in the literature and showing that, being deprived of communication with their own kind, the human individual, even if he, as an organism, is completely preserved, nevertheless remains a biological being in his mental development.
The intensity of communication, the diversity of its content, goals, means are the most important factors that determine the development of the individual.
Communication forms a person as a person, gives him the opportunity to acquire certain character traits, interests, habits, inclinations, learn the norms and forms of moral behavior, determine the goals of life and choose the means of their implementation. Diverse in content, goals and means, communication also performs a specific function in the mental development of the individual.
Among the variety of problems of modern psychology, the problem of communication is one of the most popular and intensively studied. Communication acts as one of the most important factors in the formation of personality.
As the results of psychological and pedagogical research show, it is in communication, and, above all, in direct communication with significant others (parents, teachers, peers, etc.), that the formation of the human personality comes, the formation of its most important properties, moral sphere, worldview of the growing generations.
The purpose of writing this term paper is to study the role of communication in personality development.
Object of study: communication.
Subject of study: communication as a factor in the development of personality.
Tasks:
1. Based on a theoretical study, give a general description of communication;
2. Analyze domestic theories on the problem of communication as a factor in the development of personality;
3. Analyze foreign theories on the problem of communication as a factor in the development of personality.

CHAPTER I. ANALYSIS OF THE MAIN THEORIES ON THE PROBLEM OF COMMUNICATION AS A FACTOR OF PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT

1.1. General characteristics of communication as a factor in the development of personality
The need for communication, interaction, mutual assistance did not arise by chance. A person faced problems that prompted him to unite with other people in order to jointly overcome an obstacle, to overcome a difficulty that is beyond the power of one person.
Communication is one of the basic conditions for the existence of human society and the individual. It is a complex multifaceted process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the needs of joint activities and including the exchange of information, the development of a unified interaction strategy, the perception and understanding of another person.
Communicating, people are engaged in socially useful activities, unite in communities, educate and educate the younger generation. In the process of communication, a person is socialized, he is introduced to the spiritual life of society, and his spiritual and cultural needs are formed.
Andreeva G. M., a Soviet and Russian social psychologist and sociologist, identified 3 interrelated aspects in the structure of communication:
1. Communicative, which consists in the exchange of information between communicating individuals;
2. Interactive, which involves the interaction of communicating individuals, during which there is not only an exchange of information, but also actions that reflect the personal characteristics of partners;
3. Perceptual, which is the perception and knowledge of each other by partners, which leads to the achievement of mutual understanding and convergence of positions.
Thus, communication can be spoken of as the organization of joint activities and the relationship of people included in it.
Depending on the goals, content and means, communication can be divided into several types.
By goals:
1. Biological (necessary for the maintenance, preservation and development of the body);
2. Social (pursues the goals of expanding and strengthening interpersonal contacts, establishing and developing interpersonal relationships, personal growth individual).
By content:
1. Material (exchange of objects and products of activity);
2. Cognitive (knowledge sharing);
3. Conditioning (exchange of mental or physiological states);
4. Motivational (exchange of motives, goals, interests, motives, needs);
5. Activity (exchange of actions, operations, skills, skills).
Affordable:
1. Direct (carried out with the help of natural organs given to a living being - hands, head, torso, vocal cords, etc.);
2. Indirect (associated with the use of special means and tools);
3. Direct (involves personal contacts and direct perception by each other of communicating people in the very act of communication);
4. Indirect (carried out through intermediaries, which may be other people).
Communication motives can be personal and social. Personal motives are associated with the subjective psychological states of people, with their behavior and activities, as well as with those events and phenomena that take place in their lives. Social motives are determined by the status of the individual in society, social functions, prescribing to establish contacts and interact with people of a certain category in accordance with job responsibilities.
Means of communication are those operations with the help of which actions of communication are carried out. All means of communication are divided into two large groups: verbal (verbal) and non-verbal. Verbal language refers to the language, which is a system of verbal signs with which people designate objects and phenomena of the world around them and their own states. Non-verbal means of communication are auxiliary and are used as complementary to linguistic means. These are facial expressions, pantomime, gestures, touches, etc. .
Depending on the content, the following types of communication are distinguished: material, symbolic, speech and role-playing.
Material communication is the most ancient way of exchanging information that can be communicated both with the help of natural objects and objects created by man. Natural objects and living beings carry certain information in connection with their mode of existence and their inherent properties.
Verbal communication makes it possible to obtain versatile and generalized information about the outside world and about the subjective states of the individual, about his thoughts, feelings, desires, dreams and ideals. Speech communication is carried out through words. It can be oral or written...

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Man, like all living things in nature, develops, assimilating the experience that mankind has accumulated throughout its existence. Human development is a complex and contradictory process initiated by a combination of many forces: biological and cultural; internal motives and external influences. This process begins from the moment of birth and lasts until the end of life, the nature of its course is largely determined by the environment, but at the same time it depends on the personal characteristics and properties of a person.

The initial development of a person is considered in psychology as a transition from a simple, inseparable identity of the individual and the genus to the isolation of singularity. Human development is carried out in communication with other people.

L. S. Vygotsky described the signs of development, the most important of which are differentiation, the dismemberment of a previously unified element; the emergence of new aspects, elements in the development itself; restructuring of links between the sides of the object. He also distinguished two types of development. The preformed type of development is such a type when at the very beginning both the stages that the phenomenon (organism) will pass through and the final result are set and fixed. The unpreformed type of development is not predetermined, it does not give final forms 12 .

LF Obukhova notes that development is, first of all, a qualitative change, characterized by the appearance of neoplasms, new mechanisms, processes, structures 13 .

V.S. Mukhina believes that personality development is determined not only by innate characteristics and social conditions, but also by an internal position - a certain attitude towards the world of people, to the world of things and to oneself 14 .

In the very general view"Personal development", according to V. A. Petrovsky, is the formation of a special form of integrity, which includes four forms of subjectivity: the subject of a vital attitude to the world, the subject of an objective relationship, the subject of communication, the subject of self-consciousness 15 . Development takes place in the “inner space of the personality”, but this is the space of his connections with other people. “Realizing himself in another, as if returning to himself, a person can never achieve identity with himself, his reflected Self does not coincide with the acting one.

While active non-adaptive actions (I-acting) are built without a prototype and are open to an unknown future, in their reproductions (reflected I) they complete themselves to the degree of completeness and thereby “lose” themselves in them, contradict themselves; the essential in a person's personality (to be the root cause of activity) conflicts with existence (to be reflected in other people and in oneself). Subjectively, this contradiction is experienced as a doubt about the authenticity of oneself as a cause, which prompts the search for new opportunities for self-assertion - new acts of freedom. In this generation of oneself as a subject, reflection, and again generation, the development of personality takes place.

According to V.A. Petrovsky, developing as a person, a person forms and develops his own nature. Appropriates cultural objects, acquires a circle of significant others, manifests himself in front of himself, i.e. a person enters the world of four “worlds”: “Nature”, “Objective world”, “The world of another”, “I myself” 16 .

Describing the relationship between these worlds, the author highlights the following two statements. First, any object "on the earth or in the sky" enters at least one of the worlds; the second is that any object is included in each of the four "worlds". Each of these four worlds is closely interconnected with the others; they represent several facets of one single world.

V. S. Mukhina believes that the condition for the development of the individual, in addition to the reality of nature, is the reality of the culture created by man. The author classifies this reality as follows: the reality of the objective world, the reality of figurative-sign systems, the reality of social space, natural reality. Activities that introduce a person into the space of contemporary culture, on the one hand, are components of culture, and on the other hand, they are a condition for the development of a person's personality 17 .

A.N. Leontiev noted that the process of personality development always remains deeply individual, unique. The main thing is that this process proceeds in completely different ways, depending on specific historical conditions, on whether a person belongs to one or another group, environment.

S. L. Rubinshtein characterized the personality as follows. A person is a person by virtue of the fact that he consciously determines his attitude to the environment. A person is a person to the maximum extent when there is a minimum of neutrality, indifference, indifference in him, therefore, for the development of personality fundamental has consciousness, not only as knowledge, but also as a relation 19 .

Personality in communication combines the unique and the universal. Having reached the state of perfection, internal unity, it establishes new relations with the society in which it lives, rises above the civilization to which it belongs. At the same time, she resists joining mass culture, becomes more a member of the human race and, to a lesser extent, a member of a local communication group.

Existentialists, as you know, emphasize the ultimate loneliness and uniqueness of man. And it is this idea that sharpens the problem of contact, interaction, interpenetration in communication. Verbal communication cannot solve the problem of "connection between people in their uniqueness." Understanding is possible through "intuition and empathy, love and altruism, identification with others and homonomy in general."

It is this phenomenon of interpersonal and intercultural communication - the development of a deep human essence, its ascent to its spiritual perfection - that constitutes the true nature of communication. The need for development and self-development induces human associations not only to self-knowledge, but also to mutual penetration - in the process of development of human civilization. Mutual penetration is realized both in positive, friendly, and negative, conflict, sometimes in aggressive forms.

Therefore, we can conclude that one of the important conditions for the development of personality is communication with the outside world and the relationships that a person establishes in the process of this communication.

in psychology and last years the problem of correlation between the processes of communication and activity was discussed. Some argue that communication is an activity, or at least a special case of activity, others proceed from the fact that these are two independent and equal processes. There is no reason to agree with either point of view, not because anyone here is wrong, but because in fact there is no contradiction 20 .

Indeed, the question of whether communication is a part (side) of the process of activity or, conversely, activity is a side of communication, in relation to the traditional understanding of communication as an act of communication, clearly does not have an unambiguous solution. It is quite obvious that if we understand the relationship of people as a mediated subject-object-subject process, then the relationship of two or more people is mediated by the subject of activity, and here activity acts as a side of the communication act. If we understand them as a subject-subject-object process (namely, this is how activity relations are understood), then the relationship of the subject to the object, content, goal of the activity is mediated by the relationship with the participant in the activity, and then communication is a side, part of the activity.

The fundamental reversibility of subject-object-subject and subject-subject-object relations completely removes the problem. Attempts to find out the priority in the history of mankind of either communication or activity would be similar to the classic egg and chicken problem.

But the question of the relationship between communication and activity can be deepened in the context of the proposed concept.

In order to produce, a person must unite with other people (establish contact with them, achieve mutual understanding, receive proper information, give them a response). Here, communication, as already mentioned, acts as a part, side of activity, as its most important informative aspect, as communication. But, having created an object in the process of activity, which included communication as communication, a person is not limited to this. He broadcasts himself, his features, his individuality through the object he created to other people for whom he created this object. Among them may be those who participated in the creation of this subject. This person may be among them. Through the created object, a person transcends into a social whole, finding in it his ideal representation, continuing himself in other people and in himself as in "another".

This is communication of the second kind (in contrast to communication, which has an auxiliary, "servicing" character), that is, communication as personalization. Here, activity acts as a side, a part, a necessary prerequisite for communication. Communication in activity produces a common thing between people, which appears twice: in terms of communication - its informational side and in terms of personalization - personal. In this regard, the Russian language, unlike others, is in a better position: two concepts can be used in it - communication and communication.

So, once again, an old truth is confirmed: many disputes arise due to the fact that the same object is called by different words, or, as happened with the concept of "communication", due to the fact that the same word is used for designations for different things.

Thus, the need to "be a person" arises on the basis of a socially generated opportunity to carry out appropriate actions - the ability to "be a person". This ability, it can be assumed, is nothing more than the individual psychological characteristics of a person, which allow him to carry out socially significant acts that ensure his adequate personalization in other people.

Thus, in unity with the need for personalization, which is the source of the subject's activity, its prerequisite and result is the socially generated, actually human ability to "be a person", which is revealed using the method of reflected subjectivity 21 . In psychology, activity is understood as a dynamic system of interactions between the subject and the outside world, during which a person consciously, purposefully influences the object, due to which he satisfies his needs. Of course, in various types of activity - performing, managerial, scientific - the role of consciousness is different. The more complex the activity, the higher the role of the psychological component in it. But in any case, it is activity that acts as the basis for the formation of personality.

Fig. 1 Stages of child development to maturity

In the works of both Russian and foreign scientists principle of development interpreted as the relationship of changes in psychological phenomena and the causes that give rise to them. Activity- this is the process of a person's active attitude to reality, during which the subject achieves the goals set earlier, the satisfaction of various needs and the development of social experience. In activity, a person and his psyche are manifested and, according to S. L. Rubinshtein, are formed and developed. According to S. L. Rubinshtein, mental objectively exists primarily as process- living, extremely dynamic, plastic and flexible, continuous, never completely set from the beginning and is such because it is always formed only in the course of a continuously changing interaction of the individual with the outside world, and therefore, itself is constantly changing and developing, more fully reflecting this dynamism of the surrounding reality and thereby participating in the regulation of all actions, deeds, etc.
When determining activity as an object of psychological research aspects of the study of the psyche were revealed:

the procedural aspect (the mental is analyzed from the point of view of dynamics),

historical aspect (allows you to explore the mental from the point of view of the laws and patterns of its development),

· Structural and functional aspect (determines the possibilities of analyzing the mental as a complex multi-level system that performs certain functions).

Procedural, historical and structural-functional aspects are taken into account when studying the influence of various activities on the mental development of a person. In the philosophical, psychological and pedagogical literature (M.S. Kogan, N.E. Shchurkova, etc.), the following classification of the activities of children has been developed and proposed:

· cognitive activity . The main functions of this activity in the process of developing the child's personality are that it leads to the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities; promotes intellectual development, the formation of a worldview, moral and volitional qualities, independence, etc.; forms the cognitive needs, interests, abilities of the child; introduces to creative activity;

· value-oriented activity (moral, aesthetic) is aimed at rational understanding, emotional and moral experience, evaluation and, on this basis, the assimilation of universal, social and other values ​​and the development of one's own life values;

· labor activity aimed at the creation, preservation of material values. It is carried out in the form of self-service labor, socially useful and productive labor. Functions of labor (practical) activity in personality development: formation of practical knowledge, skills and abilities; development of the sensory-motor sphere of the child; development of the polytechnic outlook, psychological and practical preparation for professional work, professional orientation schoolchildren; understanding the practical significance of science; education of will, character traits, conscientious, respectful attitude to work and the results of labor, thrift and other qualities;

· artistic activity develops an aesthetic attitude, artistic thinking, the need for beauty; develops the ability to perceive and experience the beautiful, forms the ability to create it in art and the surrounding life; stimulates amateur art activities of students, etc.;

· sports activity is aimed at the formation of a culture of a healthy lifestyle, hygienic skills, physical education generally; for the education of strength, endurance and other physical qualities;

· communicative activity . Its purpose and content is communication with another person as a value. It is implemented in the process of all other activities, as well as independent as a leisure activity for children. Forms communicative abilities and skills, moral qualities of a person, behavioral habits, etc.;

· social activity . Promotes the socialization of the student, forms his civic position, attaches to the active transformation of reality;

· play activity . It can be considered both as an independent species and as a form of other activities. This is an activity aimed at recreating and assimilating social experience in conditional situations and in a form accessible to a certain age. The main functions of the game: the development of cognitive and other abilities, the interests of the individual; stimulation of the creative nature of children's activities; removal of fatigue and tension; creation of an emotionally favorable atmosphere, psychological comfort in communication between adults and children, etc.

A game − special kind activities in which typical ways of action and interaction of people have historically been fixed; the inclusion of a child in play activities provides an opportunity to master the social experience accumulated by mankind, as well as the cognitive, personal and moral development of the child. Of particular importance is role-playing game, during which the child assumes the roles of adults and acts with objects in accordance with the assigned meanings. The mechanism of assimilation of social roles through role-playing games provides an opportunity personality socialization, as well as the development of its motivational-need sphere. The analysis of gaming activity was carried out in the works of L. S. Vygotsky, A. N. Leontiev, D. B. Elkonin and others.
Learning activities- a way of mastering subject and cognitive actions, which is based on the mechanisms for transforming the acquired material, highlighting the basic relationships between the subject conditions of the situation in order to solve typical problems in changed conditions, generalizing the principle of solution, modeling the process of solving the problem and controlling it. Like any kind of activity, educational activity has a level structure and consists of separate components - actions, operations, conditions, needs, motives, tasks.
Introduction activity categories in psychology changed the idea of ​​the mental as unique, specific.
The analysis of activity and the peculiarities of its influence on the psyche made it possible to approach the questions of the study of the psychic in a different way. The latter has been considered as a result(mental image, skill, state, feeling, etc.), and as a process.

The problem of child development has been a priority for Russian psychology since the 1930s. However, the general theoretical aspects of developmental psychology are still debatable.
In the traditional approach to this problem, the development of the personality and the development of the psyche did not differ. Meanwhile, just as the personality and the psyche are not identical, although they are in unity, so the development of the personality and the development of the psyche form a unity, but not identity (it is not by chance that the word “psyche, consciousness, self-consciousness of the personality” is possible, but, of course, not "the personality of the psyche, consciousness, self-consciousness"). It is possible to describe in detail the mental qualities, processes and states of a hero or a villain, but outside the acts they perform, none of them as a person will appear before us. Actions can only be performed in a community of people, in real social relations that both create and preserve him as a person.
The theoretically unacceptable indistinguishability between the concepts of "personality" and "psyche" turned out to be one of the main reasons deformations of some initial principles of understanding the driving forces of personality development.
L.S. Vygotsky (1930) formulated idea of ​​social development situation, "a system of relations between a child of a given age and social reality as a "starting point" for all dynamic changes that occur in development during a given period and determine wholly and completely those forms and that path of personality."
This thesis of Vygotsky is accepted as the most important theoretical postulate of the concept of personality development. In pedagogical and developmental psychology, it has not only never been refuted, but has always been used as a fundamental one. However, next to him, and in the future, in fact, instead of him as a starting point for explaining dynamic changes in development, the principle appears "leading type of activity" (A.N. Leontiev, D.B. Elkonin, V.V. Davydov and others). The fact that social attitude implemented through activities, seems indisputable, but there is no obvious connection between the concept of "social situation of development" and the concept of "leading activity", first formulated in the 1940s by A.N. Leontiev, here. For the formation of cognitive processes, the main factor ("leading type of activity") that determines the development in before school age , is predominantly a game activity in which imagination and a symbolic function are formed, attention is sharpened, and at school age(from first class to last, not just in primary school) learning activities associated with the assimilation of concepts, skills and abilities, operating with them (training leads to development, according to L.S. Vygotsky). Of course, if we reduce the development of the personality to the development of the psyche, and the latter to the development of cognitive processes, then as a result of this double reduction it was possible to designate, as is recorded in the psychological and pedagogical literature, play and learning as "leading types of activity" for the development of a holistic human personality. But theoretical failure such an approach, which has acquired the character of a truth that does not require proof, is too obvious: child psychology does not have any experimental evidence that one type of activity can be singled out as leading to personality development at each age stage, for example, at preschool age or at three school ages(in order to obtain convincing evidence, it would be necessary to conduct a number of special experimental procedures and a significant number of studies within each age period, which have as their subject a comparison (along the "horizontal" - age cut and "vertically" - age development) of the real significance of each of the numerous types of activity in which children are involved in order to develop their personality.This task requires an enormous amount of research to be solved, which seems unattainable). In theoretical terms, it is necessary to return to L.S. Vygotsky’s concept of “social situation of development”, which was initial for psychology, without replacing it with the concept of “leading type of activity”.
Thus, two approaches to personality development should be distinguished.
First, the actual psychological what is already there in a developing personality and what can be formed in it in a given specific social situation of development. Within the framework of this approach, it is clear that within the same age, different types of activity are not initially given to individuals in a given period, but are actively chosen by them in groups that differ in their level of development.
Second, actually pedagogical approach – what should be done and how in the individual to meet social demands. Within the framework of this approach, some socially approved activity always acts as a leader for the development of the personality, mediating its relationship with social environment, communication with others, constituting " social situation development". However, it will not be one "leading type of activity" for every age.
Personal development cannot and should not be determined at each age stage by just one "leading type of activity." In adolescence and early adolescence, the development of intelligence is provided learning activities, and for this purpose it is leading; social activity is set by activities that ensure adaptation in different groups; physical perfection - sports activities; moral development - interaction with reference persons, enabling the teenager to master patterns of behavior. Obviously, the more social ties expand, the more they intersect with each other.
The task of personality development does not imply the need for a particular age period and, accordingly, for each child of this age group single out a single leading activity as personality-forming: otherwise, one cannot help but fear that a one-sided personality formation will occur, that a certain hypertrophy of one of its sides will occur, hindering development and contradicting its harmonization.
As a personality-forming leading activity at each age stage, it is necessary to form a complex multifaceted activity or, more precisely, , a dynamic system of activities, each of which solves its own special task that meets social expectations, and in which there is no reason to single out leading or driven components.
In conclusion, I would like to say the following: speaking about human activity, about the role of it (activity) in the development of personality, we must not forget that any human activity throughout his life is ultimately determined by the category "meaning of life". V.Frankl calls finding meaning in a particular situation "the awareness of the possibilities of action in relation to a given situation." Recognizing that heredity and external circumstances set certain boundaries for the possibilities of behavior, he emphasizes the existence of three levels of human existence: biological, psychological and poetic, or spiritual, level. It is in the spiritual existence that those meanings and values ​​are found that play a decisive role in relation to the lower levels. Thus, Frankl formulates the idea of ​​the possibility of self-determination, which is associated with the existence of man in the spiritual world. In this regard, Frankl's concept "noetic level" can be considered as broader in relation to those that associate free will with any one kind of spiritual life.

ACTIVITY AS A FACTOR OF PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT

In psychology, activity is understood as a dynamic system of interactions between the subject and the outside world, during which a person consciously, purposefully influences the object, due to which he satisfies his needs. Of course, in various types of activity - performing, managerial, scientific - the role of consciousness is different. The more complex the activity, the higher the role of the psychological component in it. But in any case, it is activity that acts as the basis for the formation of personality. Personality does not precede activity, it is generated by this activity.
Thus, personality in psychology is considered as the subject, which is realized in the activity, especially in work and communication. In the process of activity, the mental image of an object is embodied in the subject. environment, and then the realization of the relation of the subject to objective reality that arose on the basis of this image. Such a psychic reality, as a component of activity, arises already at the early stages of a person's formation in the course of orienting and research activities designed to serve such interaction. In the process of such activity, all animals, including humans, examine the external world, form a mental image of the situation and regulate the behavior of their motor apparatus in accordance with the conditions of the task facing them.
The difference between animals and man here is only that animals are able to focus only on external, directly perceived aspects of the environment, while human activity, due to the development of collective labor and communication, can also be based on symbolic forms of representation of objective relationships.
For pedagogical science, the most important question of a psychological order is the question of the role of human activity in the development of the child's personality, its formation in the process of socialization during the passage of various stages of life: childhood, adolescence, youth, maturity. (Fig.1)

The leading factor in the development of personality is communication. Communication is a broad and multifaceted phenomenon that plays big role in the life of every person. It includes the exchange of information and emotional states; perception and interpretation by people of each other; coordination and synchronization of interaction aimed at achieving mutual understanding, etc. Communication is a form of interaction between people as equal partners; the process of establishing and developing contacts between people. Communication is the interaction of two or more people, which consists in the exchange of information between them of a cognitive or affective-evaluative nature.

In everyday word usage, and sometimes in philosophical and scientific literature, the concept of "communication" is sometimes used as a synonym for the concept of "communication". However, it is necessary to point out significant differences between them. In the strict sense of the word, communication (from Latin communicatio - message, transmission) is purely information process, the transfer by the subject of some information to some object receiving it, it does not matter whether it is to a certain person, or to the corresponding mechanism. Communication, unlike communication, implies not only informational, but also personal-existential, subjective connection between people.

Characteristic features of communication: there is a symmetrical interaction of equal partners (subject - subject); the transfer and dissemination of information goes in different directions; information enrichment occurs; dialogic interaction.

Usually, communication is included in the practical interaction of people (joint work, teaching, collective play, etc.), ensures the planning, implementation and control of their activities. At the same time, communication satisfies a special human need for contact with other people. Satisfaction of this need, which appeared in the process of socio-historical development of people, is associated with the emergence of a feeling of joy. The desire for communication often occupies a significant and sometimes leading place among the motives that encourage people to work together. practical activities. The process of communication can be isolated from other forms of activity and acquire relative independence.

Communication is one of the most important issues in psychology. An analysis of interpersonal relations as relations that develop not somewhere outside of social relations, but within them, allows us to place emphasis on the question of the place of communication, as a leading factor in the development of the individual.

Both series of human relations, both public and personal, are realized precisely in communication. Thus, communication is the realization of the entire system of human relations.

Purposeful formation of the student's personality is carried out in educational institutions and organizations in which he goes. The formation of personality at school age is determined by the extent to which, successfully and socially acceptable, the student implements his activity in those areas of life that are dominant for his age.

One of the most important factors in the formation of personality is communication. Communication plays an important role in the formation of personality. This theory was developed in the works of domestic psychologists: Ananiev V.G., Bodalev A.A., Vygotsky L.S., Leontiev A.N., Luria A.R., Myasishchev V.N., Petrovsky A.V. . and etc. .

Zimnyaya I.A. believes that communication is a very young problem of the twentieth century, if in ancient Greece and in Ancient Rome oratory was studied within the framework of rhetoric, heuristics and dialectics, then at the present stage the problem of communication is already being studied from the point of view of philosophy, sociology, social psychology, general psychology, pedagogy, pedagogical psychology.

Speech communication is widely researched all over the world. Special centers for the study of communication have been created (for example, the Carnegie Center). important questions of the problem of communication were posed and considered in the most general form by Cicero. There are many approaches to communication. From the standpoint of the activity approach Leontiev A.N., Andreeva G.M. communication is a complex multifaceted process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the need for joint activities and including the exchange of information, the development of a unified interaction strategy, the perception and understanding of another person.

Shchedrovinsky G.P., Leontiev A.N., Ryzhov V.V., Gusev G.I. suggest that communication is an activity. Communication is the interaction of people, the content of which is the mutual exchange of ideas, etc. in order to establish certain relationships. Communication, firstly, is a special type of activity (communicative activity), secondly, a condition for the implementation of any activity, and thirdly, the result of a special given activity.

The development of relationships acts as a leading activity in infancy, preschool and adolescence.

At the same time, in different periods of personality development, it has its own characteristics: in infancy, it is a direct emotional communication, in the preschool period - this is a game activity, during which the child masters relationships between people, in adolescence - further development of relationships between people, but already at a higher level compared to the preschool period.

Another point of view is shared by Elkonin D.B., Dragunova T.V., Kagan. Communication takes the status of the leading type of activity and has an intimate and personal character, the subject of communication is another person - a peer, and the content is the construction and maintenance of personal relationships with him, as the leading type of activity of a teenager is a socially useful activity, in the process of which further the development of various forms of relationships with peers, with adults, and, according to Feldstein D.I., new forms of communication are being developed "as the introduction of adolescents to society."

One of the main trends of adolescence is the reorientation of communication with parents, teachers and elders in general to peers who are more or less equal in position.

Mudrik A.V. notes that the need for communication with peers, who cannot be replaced by parents, occurs in children very early and increases with age. Mudrik A.V. believes that the behavior of adolescents is collective-group. He explains this specific behavior of adolescents as follows:

communication teenager difficulty prevention

Firstly, communication with peers is a very important channel of information; through it, adolescents learn many things that, for one reason or another, adults do not tell them:

secondly, it is a specific type of mechanical relations. Group play and other joint activities develop the necessary skills social interaction, the ability to obey collective discipline and at the same time defend their rights.

thirdly, it is a specific kind of emotional contact. Consciousness of group belonging, solidarity, comradely mutual assistance gives the teenager a sense of well-being and stability.

Relations with comrades are at the center of a teenager's life and largely determines all other aspects of his behavior and activities. Bozhovich L.I. notes that if at primary school age the basis for uniting children is most often joint activities, then for adolescents, on the contrary, the attractiveness of classes and interests are mainly determined by the possibility of wide communication with peers. By the beginning of adolescence, children come with different experiences of communicating with their comrades: for some children, it already occupies a considerable place in life, for others it is limited only to school.

Over time, communication with comrades more and more goes beyond teaching and school, includes new interests, activities, hobbies and turns into an independent and very important sphere of life for adolescents. Communication with comrades becomes so attractive and important that the teaching is relegated to the background, the opportunity to communicate with parents no longer looks so attractive.

The communication traits and communication style of boys and girls are not exactly the same.

At first glance, boys of all ages are more sociable than girls. From a very early age, they more actively than girls come into contact with other children, start joint games. However, the difference between the sexes in the level of sociability is not so much quantitative as qualitative. Although fuss and strength games bring great emotional satisfaction to boys, there is usually a competitive spirit in them, often the game turns into a fight. The content of joint activities and own success in it mean more to boys than the presence of individual sympathy for other participants in the game. Girls' communication looks more passive, but more friendly and selective. Boys first come into contact with each other, and only then, in the course of a game or business interaction, do they develop a positive attitude, there is a craving for each other. Girls, on the contrary, come into contact mainly with those they like, the content of joint activities is relatively secondary for them.

From an early age, boys tend to more extensive, and girls to intense communication, boys often play in large groups, and girls - in twos or threes.

According to Kon I.O. the psychology of communication in adolescence and adolescence is built on the basis of the contradictory interweaving of two needs: isolation (privatization) and aphoriliation, i.e. the need for belonging, inclusion in a group or community.

Separation is most often manifested in emancipation from adult control. The feeling of loneliness and restlessness associated with age-related difficulties in the formation of personality gives rise to an indefatigable thirst in adolescents for communication and grouping with peers in whose society they are or hope to find what adults deny them: spontaneity, salvation from boredom and recognition of their own importance.

For a teenager, it is important not only to be with peers, but, and, most importantly, to occupy among them a position that satisfies him. For some, this desire may be expressed in the desire to take a leadership position in the group, for others - to be recognized, beloved comrade, for others - an indisputable authority in some business, but in any case, it is the leading motive for the behavior of adolescents, external manifestations of the communicative behavior of the younger adolescents are highly controversial.

On the one hand, the desire to be the same as everyone else at all costs, on the other hand, the desire to stand out, to excel at any cost; on the one hand, the desire to earn the respect and authority of comrades, on the other hand, flaunting their own shortcomings.

DI. Feldstein distinguishes three forms of adolescent communication: intimate-personal, spontaneous-group, socially-oriented.

Intimate - personal communication - interaction based on personal sympathies - "I" and "you".

Intimate-personal communication occurs under the condition of common values ​​of partners, and complicity is ensured by understanding the thoughts, feelings and intentions of each other, empathy. higher forms intimate-personal communication are friendship and love.

Spontaneous group communication - interaction based on random contacts - "I" and "they". The spontaneous-group nature of adolescents' communication dominates in the event that socially useful activities of adolescents are not organized.

This type of communication leads to the emergence of various kinds of teenage companies, informal groups,

in the process of spontaneous group communication, aggressiveness, cruelty, increased anxiety, isolation, etc. acquire a stable character.

Socially-oriented communication - interaction based on the joint implementation of socially important matters - "I" and "society".

Socially-oriented communication serves the social needs of people and is a factor contributing to the development of forms of social life of groups, collectives, organizations, etc.

What is communication? We will define this concept in order to know what is going on here.

Communication is yesterday's conversation with a friend on the phone, a conversation with a stranger in a train compartment, an evening of memories at a meeting of classmates and much more.

This concept has no boundaries, its scope is infinite, which means, as the outstanding Soviet psychologist L.S. Vygotsky, when the scope of a concept tends to infinity, its content tends to zero. Scientific ideas about communication are quite contradictory.

Communication is a complex multifaceted process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the needs of joint activities and including the exchange of information, the development of a unified interaction strategy, the perception and understanding of another person. In practice, the two concepts "communication" and "relationship" are often confused or identified.

These concepts do not match. Communication is the process of realizing certain relationships.

The study of the problem of communication in psychology has its own tradition, and psychology usually distinguishes the following three periods for the development of the problem of communication:

1. Research by V.M. Bekhterev - for the first time he raises the question of the role of communication as a factor in the mental development of a person about the influence of a group on an individual.

2. Until the 70s. in the development of the problem of communication, the theoretical and philosophical approach prevailed.

For example, in the concept of higher mental functions L.S. Vygotsky communication occupies a central place - as a factor in the mental development of a person, the conditions for his self-regulation.

3. In the 70s. communication begins to be regarded as an independent area of ​​psychological research.

This is the period of the true birth of the problem of communication in psychology.

Specificity modern stage in the development of the problem of communication lies in the period from the study "in terms of communication" to the study of the process itself, its characteristics in the transformation of the problem of communication into an object of psychological research at all levels of analysis - theoretical, empirical, applied.

Communication is a multifaceted process of developing contacts between people, generated by the needs of joint activities. Human communication resembles a kind of pyramid, consisting of four faces: we exchange information, interacting with other people, get to know them and, also, experience our own states that arise as a result of communication.

Communication can be seen as a way to bring people together, as well as a way to develop them.

Communicating with other people, a person learns universal human experience, historically established social norms, values, knowledge and methods of activity, and is also formed as a person. Communication is the most important factor in the mental development of a person.

According to its purpose, communication is multifunctional. There are 5 main functions of communication:

1. pragmatic function communication.

It is implemented by the interaction of people in the process of joint activities.

2. Formative function of communication.

It manifests itself in the process of formation and change of the mental appearance of a person. At certain stages of development, the behavior, activities and attitudes of the child to the world and to himself are mediated in his communication with adults. Communication between a child and an adult is not only the transfer to the first of the sum of skills and knowledge that he mechanically learns, but also difficult process mutual influences, enrichments and changes. The child accepts, reproduces and realizes the experience of other people.

3. Confirmation function.

in the process of communicating with other people, a person gets the opportunity to know, approve and confirm himself.

Wanting to establish himself in his existence and his value, a person is looking for a foothold in other people.

4. Functions of organizing and maintaining interpersonal relationships.

perception of other people and maintaining various relationships with them for any person is invariably associated with evaluating people and establishing certain emotional relationships - we are either positive or negative in our sign.

5. The intrapersonal function of communication is realized in a person's communication with himself (through internal or external speech, built according to the type of dialogue).

In social psychology, there are three types of interpersonal communication:

Communication takes place in an open and direct manner.

in this case, the communication partner is considered not as a full participant, but as an object of influence, he acts in a passive "passive" form.

Manipulative communication - This is a form of interpersonal communication in which the impact on the communication partner in order to achieve their intentions is carried out covertly.

In manipulative communication, the partner is perceived not as an integral unique personality, but as a carrier of certain properties and qualities "necessary" for the manipulator.

The professions of a teacher and a psychologist can be attributed to the most confirmed manipulative deformation. in the learning process there is always an element of manipulation (to make the lesson more interesting, to motivate children, to attract their attention).

Dialogical communication- this is an equal subject-subject interaction, aimed at mutual, self-knowledge of partners in communication.

It is possible only if a number of rules of relationship are observed:

1. The presence of a psychological attitude to the current state of the interlocutor and their own current psychological state (following the principle of "here and now").

2. The use of non-judgmental perception by the partner's personality, installation on trust in his intentions.

3. perception of the partner as an equal, having the right to their own opinions and decisions.

We will characterize the structure of communication by highlighting three interrelated aspects in it: communicative, interactive and perceptual.

Communicative side of communication is the exchange of information between people. Speaking of communication, we mean the exchange between people with different ideas, ideas, interests, moods, feelings, attitudes, and the like.

In the conditions of such communication, information is not only transmitted, but also formed, refined, developed.

Information in communication is not just transferred from one partner to another, there is an exchange.

The main goal of information exchange in communication is the development of a common meaning, a common point of view and agreement on various situations or problems.

For interpersonal communication, a feedback mechanism is characteristic. differentiate between direct and indirect relationships.

Indirect Feedback- this is a veiled form of transferring psychological information to a partner.

To do this, they usually use various rhetorical questions, ridicule, ironic remarks, emotional reactions unexpected for the partner, for which the partner is not ready, in this case the communicator must guess what exactly the recipient wants to say to him.

Direct and feedback, when information comes from the recipient in an open, unambiguous form.

This is sincere, direct communication. Communicative communication m is represented by two levels:

verbal level - speech is used as a means of transmitting information, as a unique familiar means developed in the process of cultural and historical development.

The non-verbal level includes gestures, facial expressions, pantomime, voice timbre, its range, tonality, posture, laughter, coughing, crying, sighing, organization of space, distance between communication partners at the moment of communication.

Interactive the side of communication is the organization of interaction between individuals, i.e. in the exchange of not only knowledge and ideas, but also actions. in the course of communication, its participants can not only exchange information, but also organize an exchange of actions, plan general activities, develop forms and norms of joint actions. Communication can be viewed as a transaction.

Transactional analysis is a direction that involves the regulation of the actions of participants in the interaction through the regulation of their proportions, as well as taking into account the nature of situations and the style of interaction.

The theory was created by E. Berne in 1955 in the United States, this theory is based on the concept of a transaction - this is an action or action directed at another person, this is a unit of communication. E. Bern conducted a structural analysis of behavior, thoughts, feelings, desires and generalized it. He gave a description of the three elementary spheres that are in every person.

1. Every person was once a child.

2. Each person had parents or substitute raising adults.

3. Every person with a healthy brain is able to adequately assess the surrounding reality.

E. Bern identified 3 states:

1. I am "Child";

2. I am "Parent";

3. I am an "adult".

in every person there are three "I": parent, child, adult.

"Child" is a dependent, subservient and unrequited being. speaking in the position of "Child" a person looks subordinate and unsure of himself.

"Parent" - independent, non-subordinate and taking responsibility. in the position of "Parent" - self-confidently aggressive ("from above").

"adult" - who knows how to reckon with the situation, can understand the interests of others and distribute responsibility between himself and the people around him. in the position of "adult" - correct and restrained ("next to"), in each person each of these three "I" "live and coexist" at the same time, but their manifestation and dominance depends on the specific situation of communication at a given moment.

"I-child" arises and is developed in childhood, at that age due to imitation of elders and the desire to be in their place, as for the "I-adult", it takes a long time, sometimes decades due to the life experience of the subject and the accumulation of what is called worldly wisdom.

For the harmonious development of relations, a uniform and proportional manifestation of the three "I" is desirable, depending on the situation and life tasks, regardless of who it is - a woman, a man, a child, an old man.

Eric Berne identified four life scripts that are programmed in childhood:

1. I'm bad - you're good. Low self-esteem, a person is a loser. in an early situation, normal development of the personality is impossible.

for all his failures, a person blames only himself.

2. I am good - you are bad.

Egoists with high self-esteem, are arrogant, show disrespect for other people, tend to blame everyone around them.

3. I'm bad - you're bad. The person is depressed, is in an aggressive situation. They don't accept me, and I don't accept anyone.

A person who receives little attention.

This position destroys the person himself.

4. I am good - you are good. A person has an objective assessment of other people and himself.

Perceptual the side of communication means the process of perception of each other by partners in communication and the establishment of mutual understanding on this basis. The idea of ​​another person depends on the level of development of one's own self-consciousness, the idea of ​​one's own "I".

Language is the main means of communication.

Language is a system of signs that serves as a means of human communication, mental activity, a way of expressing a person's self-consciousness.

Signs are of great importance in the process of communication.

A sign is any material object (object, phenomenon, event) that acts as an indication and designation and is used to acquire, store, process and transmit information.

In addition to the common meaning for all individuals, a sign can have its own subjectively colored personal meaning for everyone.

He is born personal experience person, his desires, hopes, fear, other feelings.

in the afterword to L.S. Vygotsky "Thinking and Speech" by his associate A.R. Luria speaks of the meaning of a word as the "internal meaning" which the word has for the speaker himself and which constitutes the subtext of the utterance.

The words "Carriage to me, carriage!" does not mean at all only that Chatsky points to the carriage and asks for it to be brought.

the inner meaning of the statement lies in the fact that Chatsky breaks with a society that is unacceptable to him, and the hero’s exclamation is not at all a transfer of a specific event, but a “clot of meaning” that stands behind it.

Characteristics and content of communication. Mechanisms of influence in the process of communication.

There are two types of communication: verbal and non-verbal. Communication carried out with the help of words is called verbal ( from lat. § verbalis - verbal).

In non-verbal communication, the means of transmitting information are non-verbal (non-verbal) signs (postures, gestures, facial expressions, intonations, views, territorial location, etc.).

Live speech contains a lot of information contained in the so-called non-verbal elements of communication, among which are the following.

1. Postures, gestures, facial expressions. in general, they are perceived as general motor skills various Parts body (hands - gestures, faces - facial expressions, postures - pantomime).

This gross motor skills reflects a person's emotional responses. It is these features that are called kinetics.

2. Paralinguistics or prosodic - pronunciation features, voice timbre, its pitch and loudness, speech rate, pauses between words, phrases, laughter, crying, sighs, speech errors, contact organization features

Paralinguistic and extralinguistic systems are "additions" to verbal communication.

3. Proxemics (from the English proximity - closeness). The founder of proxemics E. Hall called it spatial psychology.

4. Visual communication - eye contact.

Non-verbal means of communication are most often used to establish emotional contact with the interlocutor and maintain it during the conversation, to record how well a person controls himself, and also to obtain information about what people really think about others.

The American psychologist J. Treiger called non-verbal means of communication an emotional language, since most often they "tell" us precisely about the feelings of the interlocutor.

What can be reported non-verbal means communication?

Firstly, they are able to point out to the interlocutor the most important points of the message.

secondly, non-verbal means of communication complement the content of the statement.

thirdly, non-verbal means of communication testify to the attitude towards the interlocutor, since they express the feelings of the speaker.

fourthly, non-verbal means of communication make it possible to judge the person himself, his state at the moment, psychological qualities . The main mechanisms of knowing another person in the process of communication areidentification, empathy and reflection.

Identification ( from lat. identifico - identification, assimilation) expresses what is one of the most simple ways understanding another person is to liken oneself to him.

Empathy - is the ability To understanding the emotional state of another person in the form of empathy.

The term "empathy" was introduced by E. Titchener, who said: "I not only see importance, modesty or pride in others. I feel these traits, play them in my mind."

The process of understanding each other is complicated by the phenomenon reflections ( from lat. reflexio - reversal).

This is not just knowing or understanding a partner, but knowing how a partner understands me, a kind of doubled process of mirror relationships with each other.

Infection. V In its most general form, it can be defined as an unconscious involuntary susceptibility of a person to certain mental states. It manifests itself through the transmission of a certain emotional state or, in the words of the famous psychologist B.D. Parygin, mental attitude.

Suggestion. This is a purposeful, unreasoned impact of one person on another. With suggestion (suggestion), the process of transmitting information is carried out, based on its non-critical perception. The effect of suggestion depends on age: children are more suggestible than adults. Tired, physically weakened people are more suggestible. It has been experimentally proven that the decisive condition for effective suggestion is the authority of the suggester.

Belief. With the help of rationale, obtain consent from the person receiving the information. Persuasion is an intellectual impact on the consciousness of the individual through an appeal to her own critical judgment.

Imitation It is not a simple acceptance of the external features of the behavior of another person, but the reproduction by him of the features and images of the demonstrated behavior.

The perceptual side of communication

What stands for us behind the words "perception and understanding of the other in communication"

In order to understand this, it is necessary to answer the following questions.

How is the first impression formed?

How does the perception and understanding of another occur in long-term communication?

How do we understand partner actions?

How is self-presentation (self-presentation) manifested in communication?

First impression

Psychologists have discovered several typical schemes according to which the image of another person is built and which, to one degree or another, are used by all people. Building the image of a partner according to these schemes sometimes leads to the so-called first impression effects or systematic errors of social perception. Knowledge of these schemes can help to understand how the first impression of a person is formed:

in the experiments of A.A. Bodalev, groups of subjects were asked to describe a person from a photograph. Before showing the same photo, one group was given to understand that it was a photo of a hero, and the other a criminal.

depending on the proposed status of a person, the descriptions were changed.

here are the descriptions of the criminal "A man who has fallen, very embittered, unkemptly dressed, unkempt. You might think that before becoming a criminal, he was an employee or an intellectual. Very evil look."

And here is the description of the hero; "A very strong-willed face. Fearless eyes look askance. Lips are compressed, one feels mental strength and resilience. proud facial expression.

With inequality errors, the scheme of perception is as follows. When meeting a person who is superior to us in some important parameter for us, we evaluate him somewhat more positively than it would be if he were equal to us.

If we are dealing with a person whom we are superior in some way, then we underestimate him. It is very important to remember that superiority is fixed in one parameter, and overestimation (or underestimation) occurs in many parameters. These errors can be called superiority factor.

No less important and recognizable are errors related to whether we like our communication partner outwardly or not. These mistakes lie in the fact that if we like a person (outwardly), then at the same time we tend to consider him better, smarter, more interesting, etc. (i.e., again, overestimate many of his psychological characteristics). We are dealing with attraction factor. the more outwardly attractive a person is to us, the better he is in all respects, but if he is unattractive, then his other qualities are underestimated.

The next scheme, those people who treat us well, seem to us much better than those who treat us badly. This is a manifestation of the so-called factor "relationship to us."

American psychologists R. Nisbet and T. Wilson conducted the following experiment. Students spent half an hour talking with a new teacher, who behaved kindly with some subjects, with others - suspensions, emphasizing social distance. The students were then asked to rate a number of teacher characteristics. The results were fairly unambiguous. The benevolent teacher's scores were significantly higher than those of the "distracted" one.

A positive attitude towards us gives rise to a strong tendency to attribute positive properties and "discard" negative ones, and vice versa - a negative attitude causes a tendency not to notice the partner's positive aspects and highlight the negative ones. The three types of errors we have considered in the formation of the first impression are called halo effect. The halo effect is manifested in the fact that when forming a first impression, a general positive impression of a person leads to an overestimation of an unknown person.

All three of these factors cover almost all possible situations of communication. The primary perception of another person is always wrong. The image of a partner, which is created upon acquaintance, is a regulator of subsequent behavior, it is necessary in order to correctly and effectively build communication in a given situation. Our communication is built depending on who we communicate with, and for each category of partners there are different communication techniques.

Research shows that we have two main sources of information at our disposal to determine superiority:

1) clothes of a person, his whole image;

2) the manner of a person's behavior (how he sits, walks, talks, where he looks, etc.).

In addition to these two signs, we have no others. But these sources are really significant only because the information is embedded in them in accordance with historical stereotypes.

In the manner of behavior, as in clothing, there are always elements that make it possible to judge the status of a person ("What befits Jupiter does not befit a bull," says an ancient saying). That is why we all, by the manner of behavior, can determine our equality or inequality with another person.

What is excellence in behavior? Rather, it can be defined as independence in various situations and circumstances.

This includes, above all, independence from a partner: a person shows that he is not interested in the one with whom he communicates, his reaction, mood, state or what he is talking about.

Such external independence can also look like arrogance, arrogance, self-confidence, etc. Independence from the communication situation is revealed in the following: a person, as it were, does not notice some of its aspects - the presence of witnesses, an unsuccessfully chosen moment, various interferences, etc. Such behavior almost always indicates a certain superiority.

Too relaxed posture (for example, lounging in a chair) during an important conversation can mean superiority in a situation, power.

It also happens that a person looks to the side, out the window, examines his nails - this is a clear demonstration of superiority, power (by the way, dependent people usually carefully look at the interlocutor, "look into the eyes").

If a person speaks incomprehensibly to the interlocutor, uses a lot of special "terms, foreign words, that is, does not strive to be understood, then such behavior is sometimes recorded as intellectual superiority.

The manner of behavior may contain signs of superiority for various reasons: due to real superiority, objective or only subjective, and also due to situational superiority. Of course, the perception of superiority is influenced by the whole experience of a person and his inner position. Note that the effect of the factor of superiority begins when a person fixes the superiority of another over himself in terms of signs in clothes and behavior.

Long-term communication in constant communication, the results of the first impression continue to act. in constant communication, a deeper and more objective understanding of the partner becomes important.

Communicating with a partner, we receive a large amount of information about him, his condition and experiences.

It is also known that the ability of adequate perception of other individuals in different people various.

A person's face, his gestures, facial expressions, the general style of expressive behavior, gait, his manner of standing, sitting, habitual postures and their changes during a conversation, spatial orientation in relation to partners - all this has a certain content and carries information about the internal states of a person.

What most attracts our attention in the appearance of another person is his face.

Indeed, one can make a "smart" face and thereby influence one's opinion about oneself, and besides, the face is often "soulful", "funny", "enlightened", "sullen", etc.

Thus, the first thing that is reflected in a person's face is emotions.

There are seven basic facial expressions: happiness, surprise, fear, suffering, anger, disgust (or contempt) and interest.

An important role in reading information "from the face" is played by the direction of view..

However, although the face is the main source of psychological information, nevertheless, in many situations it is much less informative than we think.

This is due to the fact that facial expressions are well controlled by a person, despite the popular belief that a face can betray a person even when he does not want it ("as it is written on the face").

Under certain circumstances(for example, observing the rules of etiquette), when a person wants to hide his feelings, the face becomes uninformative, and the body becomes the main source of information for the partner. Some psychologists even refer to the body as a "leak of information" about our mental states.

Gait, for example, is also one of the most important keys to understanding the internal state of a person. No wonder the gait is so recognizable - it is strictly individual. By walking, it is quite easy to recognize the emotional state of a person. Moreover, it turned out that the "heaviest" gait - in a state of anger, the longest stride - in a state of pride. When a person experiences suffering, he almost does not swing his arms, they "hang" - and if he is happy, then he "flies", he has more frequent and easier steps.

Our actions in communication. For each of us, the construction of interaction with another person largely depends on understanding the origins of actions and their causes. The ways and mechanisms of such an understanding could not fail to interest psychologists, so a whole direction arose: the study of the processes and results of causal attribution (attribution of causes) of behavior.

How does a person explain the behavior of others in practice?

For example, someone is late for a date with friends.

One of those waiting thinks it's related to bad job transport, another suggests that the delay is the result of the frivolity of the one who is late, the third begins to doubt whether he told the latecomer another, incorrect meeting place, and the fourth believes that they are deliberately made to wait. Everyone has their own ideas about the reason for being late.

The first sees it in the circumstances, the second - in particular the person who is late, the third sees the reason in himself, and the fourth considers the delay intentional and purposeful. The reasons for being late are motivated in completely different ways, and this is due to the fact that friends carry out attribution in different ways.

When does causal attribution occur? The need for it appears in cases where unexpected obstacles and difficulties arise in the way of joint activities. When difficulties and conflicts arise, as well as a clash of interests or views, people resort to causal attribution of their own or someone else's behavior and thus try to influence further events. Moreover, the more difficulties we encounter during interaction, the more seriously we approach the search for the causes of these difficulties.

Self-presentation in communication

At least two people participate in communication, and each of them can actively influence the perception of a partner. It is this ability to interfere in the process of forming one's image with a partner that is called self-feed ( some authors have self-presentation, self-presentation). Essentially, self-feeding is attention management.

Self-serve of excellence. In order to be effective, this mechanism of social perception must be based on some objective signs, signs of superiority - clothing, manner of speech and behavior.

For example, fashionable youth clothes of one person will affect others only if they are seen against the background of unfashionable clothes of others. When everyone is dressed the same, this factor will not work.

If we need to hide superiority, then we must take care of the opposite.

When a young girl puts on a strict dark gray suit, everyone understands that she is not going to the dance. it is probably extremely important for her to emphasize her status - she needs to veil her youth, emphasize some officiality.

While showing superiority through clothing is easy enough, emphasizing superiority in demeanor is much more difficult. Self-feeding attractiveness. Attractiveness is also subject to management. Moreover, if self-feeding of superiority is not always important for a person, then self-feeding of attractiveness is important for everyone. The rule of self-feeding of attractiveness is very simple: it is not the clothing itself that makes us attractive, but the work that we have spent on bringing it into line with our external data.

Self-serving relationship. Indeed, it is always very important to be able to show your partner your attitude towards him - more often good, but sometimes bad.

We are well aware that a frown, a look away or past the interlocutor does not dispose others to such a partner, while a smile, a nod of agreement or an open look help to establish contact. But, of course, here, too, our knowledge and ideas are more intuitive than accurate. What is an "open view"? Usually a direct look is interpreted as an expression of good feelings.

But there is one significant exception. If someone looks at us directly, intently, continuously and persistently, then such a defiant look is often interpreted as a sign of hostility rather than friendliness.

Ways of self-feeding attitude towards us can be divided into verbal and non-verbal. The arsenal of non-verbal means is diverse: you can show your attitude with a nod of the head and a glance.

But perhaps the most important is the posture and position of the body in relation to the interlocutor.

If we turned to face the interlocutor, then this demonstrates one attitude, the back - another. This can be seen very well in children: if a child loves an adult, then he tries to be as close as possible to him, and if he does not love, then he runs away or hides. If it is not customary for adults to turn their backs to the interlocutor, then children do this all the time: when they are offended, they turn away, stand sideways, look frowningly. all these are signs of a certain relationship.

It is very important that verbal and non-verbal means do not contradict each other: the coincidence of these means enhances trust in a person.

Self-feeding of the current state and causes of behavior

Self-feeding is objectively present in any communication, whether a person wants it or not. This means that in any situation it can serve as a source of errors in the perception of another person. Self-serving plays an important role in friendly and business relations.

The communicative side of communication

Communication - it is communication, i.e. exchange of opinions, experiences, moods, desires, etc.

barriers of misunderstanding. in many situations, a person is faced with the fact that his words, his desires and motives are somehow incorrectly perceived by the interlocutor, "do not reach" him.

Communication is influence; therefore, if communication is successful, there must be some change in the ideas about the world of the one to whom it is addressed.

avoidance. Avoidance of sources of influence, avoidance of contacts with a partner is implied.

Avoidance as a type of protection from exposure is manifested not only in the fact that the individual avoids certain people, but also in the avoidance of certain situations.

Misunderstanding. Quite often, some potentially dangerous information for a person can also come from people whom we generally and generally trust. in this case, the defense will be a kind of misunderstanding of the message itself.

The first of the most effective methods of attracting attention is reception of "neutral phrase".

Its essence, with all the variety of applications, comes down to the fact that at the beginning of the speech a phrase is uttered that is not directly related to the main topic, but for some reason it certainly has meaning, meaning and value for all those present and therefore collects their attention.

The second method of attracting and concentrating attention is the so-called reception of "enticement".

Its essence lies in the fact that the speaker first pronounces something in a way that is difficult to perceive, very quietly, very incomprehensibly, too monotonously or illegibly.

The listener has to make special efforts to at least understand something, and these efforts involve concentration of attention. Using this technique, the speaker, as it were, provokes the listener to apply methods of concentration of attention.

Another important way to "gather" attention is eye contact technique between speaker and listener.

A lot of people use this technique, knowing its effectiveness: they look around the audience, look intently at one person, fix their eyes on several people in the audience and nod to them, etc. Establishing eye contact is a technique widely used in any communication (not only in mass communication, but also in personal, business, etc.).

Looking closely at a person, we attract his attention, constantly moving away from someone's gaze, we show that we do not want to communicate: any conversation begins with mutual eye contact.

Interactive side of communication

Action - main content of communication. in our communication, we constantly react to the actions of a partner. in one case, it seems to us that the partner offends us and we defend ourselves, in the other, that he flatters us, in the third, that he is “pushing” us somewhere.

What allows us to understand the meaning of the partner's actions? In order to analyze your actions in communication, to assess their adequacy of the situation, you need to answer the following questions:

How to relate the situation and action? How to choose the right actions?

One of possible ways understanding the situation of communication is the perception of the position of partners, as well as their positions relative to each other. Each of us noticed that in any conversation, conversation, public speaking, who is the leader in this communication and who is the follower is of great importance.

The English psychotherapist Perls identifies two main positions in the conversation: the master of the situation and the subordinate side.

Communication styles

The style of communication significantly determines the behavior of a person in his interaction with other people. Concrete Choice The style of communication is determined by many factors: the personal characteristics of a person, his worldview and position in society, the characteristics of this society, and many others.

Ritual style is generated by intergroup situations, manipulative - business, and humanistic - interpersonal.

ritual communication. Maintaining contact with society, reinforcing the idea of ​​​​oneself as a member of society.

A partner in such communication is a necessary attribute of the ritual. V real life there are a huge number of rituals, sometimes very different situations, in which everyone participates as some kind of "mask" with predetermined properties. These rituals require only one thing from the participants - knowledge of the rules of the game:

in ritual communication, it is essential for us to follow a social role. For ritual communication, it is very important, on the one hand, to correctly recognize the situation of communication, and to imagine how to behave in it, on the other.

in many cases we are happy to take part in ritual communication, in even more situations we participate in it automatically, fulfilling the requirements

manipulative communication. This is communication in which the partner is treated as a means of achieving goals external to him. in manipulative communication, we "slip" a stereotype to the partner, which we consider the most beneficial at the moment.

And even if both partners have their own goals to change the point of view of the interlocutor, the one who turns out to be a more skillful manipulator will win, i.e. the one who knows the partner better, understands the goals better, owns the technique of communication better.

Manipulation is a negative phenomenon.

Great amount professional tasks involves precisely manipulative communication. Manipulative communication is an extremely common type of communication that occurs mainly where there is a joint activity. it is important to remember one essential point - the attitude of a person to manipulative communication and the reverse effect of manipulative style.

humanistic communication. This is the most personal communication that allows you to satisfy such a human need as the need for understanding, sympathy, empathy. Neither ritual nor manipulative communication can fully satisfy this vital need. The goals of humanistic communication are not fixed, not planned initially. His important feature is a joint change in the views of both partners, determined by the depth of communication.

The situations of humanistic communication are known to everyone - this is an intimate, confessional, psychotherapeutic communication.

The main mechanism of influence in humanistic communication is suggestion, suggestion is the most effective of all possible mechanisms.

So, we have examined in sufficient detail the problem of communication as a whole, and also dwelled on the structure, content, characteristics of the elements of communication, mechanisms of influence on a communication partner.