Classical School of Management

The first school of management was classical scientific school formed in the period from the 90s of the 19th century. By the 20s 20th century The main representatives of this school were Frederick Taylor, Frank Gilbert, Henri Fayol and Max Weber.

M. Weber- developer of the concept of rational management bureaucracy (bureau - table, krat - strength, power).

Unlike the school of scientific management, which dealt mainly with the rational organization of the work of an individual worker, representatives of the classical school developed approaches to improve the management of the organization as a whole.

The goal of the classical school was to create universal principles of management, following which will lead the organization to success.

There are main directions of the classical school of management: scientific management; administrative approach; bureaucracy analysis.

The basis of all the management concepts that make up the classical school is the idea put forward by Adam Smith, according to which only economic rewards induce people to work: in order to get people to work, managers must satisfy their need for money.

The initial principles of the classical school:

People are driven only by economic gain.

Individuals are only passive material for manipulation by organizations that control and motivate their behavior. Emotions are incompatible with economic rationality.

Organizations must have ways to control the emotions and unpredictable behavior of employees.

The founder of such a direction as "scientific management" was Frederick Taylor, an American engineer. Taylor believed that the solution of the production problem required the rationalization of work operations. Managers should think and workers should work, Taylor believed. He outlined the main ideas of his system in The Foundations of Scientific Management (1911).

He understood the main task of scientific management as "the maximum provision of the maximum prosperity of the employer, together with the maximum prosperity of each hired worker." For an employer, “maximum prosperity” includes more than just maximum profit in a short time, and the development of all areas of the enterprise to a state of constant prosperity. For employees, "maximum prosperity" means not just immediate higher pay, but also opportunities for growth so that they can work effectively at the highest levels of work that suit their personal capabilities.

The interdependence of managers and workers, and the need for them to work together toward the common goal of increasing the prosperity of all, is clear enough to Taylor. But why is there so much inefficiency here? He suggests three reasons:

• the mistaken belief of workers that any increase in labor productivity will inevitably lead to unemployment;

· imperfect management systems that force workers to limit productivity in order to protect their interests ("systematic shirking");

· inefficient, labor-intensive, artisanal methods of work based on "common sense".

Taylor concludes that the purpose of " scientific management There must be overcoming these obstacles. This can be achieved by systematically examining the work to find the most efficient way to do it, and by exploring ways to improve managerial management in order to find better ways to supervise workers. Thus, scientific management should ensure a significant increase in labor efficiency and, at the same time, the prosperity of the organization, which should contribute to the growth of employment and high pay for employees.

To achieve this, Taylor formulated four "great foundational principles of management":

The development of a true science of work. Taylor points out that we don't really know what daily work consists of; the manager has unlimited opportunities to complain about the inadequacy of the workers, and the workers never really know what is required of them. This can be remedied by establishing a "large daily task", that is, the amount of work that an average, well-trained worker should perform under optimal conditions. For this, workers should be paid substantially more than they would be paid for similar work in enterprises that have not introduced scientific management methods. The income of workers must decline if they do not reach the scientifically established level of productivity.

Scientific selection and progressive development of the worker. In order to receive such high pay, a systematic selection of workers must be made to ensure that they have the physical and intellectual qualities that enable them to achieve such productivity. Then they should be trained to the first-class level. Taylor believes that any worker can be first-class at a particular job. It is the responsibility of management to develop the workers, to present them with opportunities for advancement that would eventually enable them to perform jobs appropriate to their increasing qualifications and higher wages.

Constant and close cooperation between management and workers. There is an almost equal distribution of responsibility between managers and workers. Taylor showed that it is difficult to find any worker action that has not been preceded by some managerial action. With such close cooperation, the possibilities for conflict are almost completely eliminated, since the activation of power is not arbitrary. Managers must constantly demonstrate that their decisions are subject to the same discipline as the actions of workers, namely the scientific study of work.

The new system of work organization proposed by Taylor required the definition of new requirements for managerial personnel and the development (for the first time in the history of management) of a list of "leadership qualities", including "mental and spiritual qualities necessary for the performance of all duties assigned to these people." In total, he identifies nine such principles:

· Education.

· Special or technical knowledge; physical agility and strength.

· Energy.

· Decisiveness.

· Honesty.

· Discretion and common sense.

· Good health.

Of course, this list of Taylor painted the image of an ideal leader-manager, which the author himself understood, noting that "people with six or eight qualities are almost impossible to get." However, to solve this almost insoluble problem of finding leaders who possess all of the above leadership qualities, Taylor proposes to abandon the military type organization: “Throughout the line of administration, the military type should be abolished and replaced by what we call the “functional type.” Functional administration consists in distributing the work of management in such a way that each employee, from the assistant director down to the lowest posts, should perform as few functions as possible.

Basic principles of scientific management by F. Taylor are as follows:

· development of optimal methods for carrying out work on the basis of scientific study expenses of time, movements, efforts, etc.;

· absolute adherence to the developed standards;

· selection, training and placement of workers for those jobs and tasks where they can give the greatest benefit;

· pay based on performance (less results - less pay, more results - more pay);

· the use of functional managers exercising control in specialized areas;

· maintaining friendly relations between workers and managers in order to ensure the possibility of scientific management.

Typical for the classical school is the example of studies by Frank and Lillian Gilbert, who, using special watches - microchronometers and a movie camera, identified and described 17 basic elementary hand movements, subsequently recommending them for the rational organization of labor.

The second direction of the classical school of management developed problems concerning the work of the entire organization as a whole, and also, in particular, ideas regarding the leadership qualities of well-trained administrators. Representatives of this direction tried to answer the question: "How to get people to work in the best interests of the organization?". The most significant contribution to the development of the ideas of administration was made by Henri Fayol. His most famous work, General and Industrial Administration, appeared in 1916.

Fayol's concept was based on the position that in every enterprise there are two organisms: material and social. The first includes labor itself, means of labor and objects of labor in their totality; by the second, he meant the relationship of people in the labor process. These relationships became the subject of Fayol's research, i.e. he deliberately limited the scope of his research.

To manage, Fayol argued, means to lead an enterprise towards its goal, extracting opportunities from all available resources.

According to Fayol, administration is part of management - a continuous universal process that includes six main groups of management operations:

1. technical and technological (production, manufacturing, processing);

2. commercial (purchase, sale, exchange);

3. financial (raising capital, accounting and rational spending of funds);

4. security (activities to protect property and people's lives);

5. accounting (analysis of statistical data, inventory, balance sheets, production costs);

6. administrative (organization, planning, command, coordination and control).

Fayol noted that these six groups of activities, or their essential functions, are always present in entrepreneurship. Each group of operations, or essential function, corresponds to a special "installation". There are different "installations": technical, commercial, financial, administrative, etc. These attitudes define the qualities or skills of managers that are closely related to their leadership responsibilities.

Each of these "attitudes" rests on a set of qualities and knowledge, which can be reduced to the following six headings:

§ Physical Qualities: health, strength, dexterity;

§ Mental Qualities: understanding, easy assimilation, prudence, strength and flexibility of the mind;

§ Moral qualities: energy, fortitude, consciousness of responsibility, initiative, sense of duty, tact, sense of dignity;

§ General development: a stock of various concepts that are not exclusively related to the area of ​​the function performed;

§ Special Knowledge: relating exclusively to any bottom function - be it technical, be it commercial, be it financial, etc.;

§ Experience: knowledge arising from practice; memories of lessons personally learned from their facts.

Fayol's merit lies in the fact that he divided all management functions into general, related to any field of activity, and specific, related directly to the management of an industrial enterprise. He believed that management activity itself should become a special object of study. Fayol defined that management activities include five mandatory common functions Key words: foresight (planning), organization, command, coordination and control. He formulated the rules and techniques for their implementation.

Foresight (planning). It is expressed in the development of an enterprise action program for technical, financial, commercial and other operations for the future and for the current period.

Fayol paid special attention to foresight. In his opinion, foresight is the most essential part of management.

The main place in foresight is given to the development of a program of action, by which he understood "the ultimate goal, the guiding line of conduct, the stages of the upcoming path and the means that will be put into action." The picture of the future cannot always be clearly presented, but the upcoming events can be worked out in sufficient detail.

Organization. Under the organization of the work of the enterprise, Fayol understood the provision of everything necessary for its work. Fayol distinguished between material and social organization. Material organization includes providing the enterprise with the necessary materials, capital, equipment, social organization - providing the enterprise with people. The social organism must be able to carry out all the operations necessary to carry out the production process.

Disposition. The purpose of management is to extract the greatest benefit from employees subordinate to the head in the interests of the enterprise as a whole. The head, who performs the function of the manager, must adhere to the following rules:

know perfectly subordinate employees;

Dismiss incapable workers;

know well the conditions connecting the enterprise and employees;

Set a positive example

· carry out periodic inspection of the social organism of the enterprise;

· hold meetings with leading employees in order to agree on the unity of directions and efforts;

strive to ensure that activity and devotion dominate among the personnel of the enterprise;

Do not pay much attention to trifles to the detriment of solving the most important issues.

Coordination. Its main goal is to achieve conformity and consistency between the various parts of the enterprise by establishing rational links in production. These links are of the most diverse nature: in terms of content, they can be technical, economic, organizational; on a hierarchical basis - links between different levels of the managed object. In addition, this includes links between production proper, on the one hand, and distribution, exchange, and consumers, on the other.

Enterprise management through the function of coordination is designed to rationally organize all these connections on the basis of their study and improvement.

Control. The task of control is to check the execution in accordance with the adopted program. Control should be carried out on time and have specific consequences.

Fayol considered the enterprise as a closed control system. He paid the main attention to the internal opportunities to improve the efficiency of the enterprise by improving the management process. Fayol formulated principles (rules) that, in his opinion, are applicable to any administrative activity. However, he noted that these principles are flexible and mobile and their application depends on changing circumstances.

Fayol formulated 14 principles of management:

1. Division of labor. The purpose of labor is to perform work that is larger in volume and better in quality, with the same effort. This is achieved by reducing the number of goals to which attention and efforts are directed. Fayol believed in the efficiency of the division of labor, but only within certain limits, beyond which, in his opinion, it can lead to a decrease in the efficiency of production.

2. Authority. Official power must be supported by personal authority and complemented by responsibility.

3. Discipline. Mainly it has to do with compliance with agreements and rules. Assumes obedience, respect for the agreements reached, justly expected sanctions, etc.

4. unity of command. The employee must receive orders and instructions from his immediate supervisor.

5. Unity of direction. Each group operating within the same goal must have a plan and one leader. Fayol emphasized: "One leader and a single plan for a set of operations with a common goal."

6. Subordination of personal interests to the general. The interests of employees should be aimed at fulfilling the interests of the entire enterprise and should not prevail over them.

7. Reward, i.e. the price of the services provided. Remuneration must be fair and sufficient to motivate to work. This applies equally to workers and managers.

8. Centralization. The enterprise must achieve a certain correspondence between centralization and decentralization (Fig. No. 2), which depends on its size and specific operating conditions. Centralization - the amount of power and authority that a manager has at any level (the amount of decisions that he can make without the approval of the head). Fayol believed that for each type of decision there should be a corresponding level.

9. Scalar chain (hierarchy). All personnel must be distributed in strict accordance with the hierarchical structure. The scalar chain determines the subordination of workers. A scalar chain is a series of persons in leadership positions, ranging from the person in the highest position to the lowest level manager. It is a mistake both to refuse and to support this hierarchy, which is detrimental to business interests. There are vertical and horizontal organizations - a set of layers or levels of control forms a hierarchy. The number of management levels depends on the scope of management. Two thirds of all organizations have 5 to 8 levels of management. (The Roman Catholic Church has 5 levels of government - Priest, Bishop, Archbishop, Cardinal and Pope)

10. Order. Fayol divided order into "material" and "social". Each employee must have his own workplace, provided with everything necessary. Briefly, this principle can be formulated as follows: "A place - for everything and everything - in its place."

11. Impartiality. Managers at all levels of management must treat their staff fairly. An employee who feels fair to himself feels loyalty to the firm and tries to work with full dedication.

12. Staff stability. This refers to the high costs of training those who know the organization and the managers working in it. High employee turnover reduces the efficiency of the organization. Fayol believed that it is better for an organization to have a mediocre but willing to stay leader than an outstanding manager who is about to leave her.

13. Initiative. The emancipation of the initiative is seen as a means of motivating staff; the manager must encourage this process, even if it hurts his ego. It gives the organization strength and energy.

14. corporate spirit. Union is a force that is the result of the harmony of the personnel and management of the firm. The strength of the enterprise is in the "unity" of all employees of the enterprise. Fayol pointed out the inadmissibility of using the principle of "divide and conquer" in management. He believed that leaders should encourage collectivism in all its forms and manifestations.

Benefits of centralization and decentralization

The classification of management principles proposed by Fayol contributed to the streamlining of the management process. Fayol believed that the system of principles he proposed could not be definitively formulated. It should remain open to additions and changes based on new experience, its analysis and generalizations.

Fayol's main merit is that he determined what management is and what place a leader with leadership qualities takes in the management process. He is the first known researcher to give a theoretical analysis management activities-- an analysis that has withstood half a century of critical debate.

The basis of the direction, called the "analysis of bureaucracy" was laid by the German philosopher and sociologist Max Weber (1864-1920). The range of his scientific interests is wide, but his main contribution to management theory was the development of the concept of bureaucratic organization and types of organizational leadership.

A bureaucratic organization is an organization that does not take into account the individual, personal characteristics of the staff and does not stimulate initiative, creative work.

Taylor's theoretical work was substantiated by the German sociologist Max Weber, who put forward the premise that a strict order, backed up by appropriate (developed by Taylor) rules, is the most effective method of work.

The division of the work performed into separate constituent elements - movements, according to the theory of Taylor-Weber, must be subjected to strict regulation and control.

Weber believed that a functioning organization can be "decomposed" into its component parts and "normalized" the work of each of them. Such a division of labor specializes the staff and accordingly builds the organization on a linear basis (that is, everyone is responsible for their actions only to the superior). In addition, Weber proposed and substantiated other thoughts on building a bureaucratic system. In particular, he believed that it was possible to regulate both the functions and the number of managers.

Weber put forward the concept of three types of power - traditional, rational and charismatic. These three types of power he calls "ideal types".

The traditional type is based on traditions, social habits, it is based on a traditional action, "as it was carried out by the patriarch and the patrimonial prince of the old type." According to R. Aron, in such a society, “the subject acts according to tradition, he does not need to set a goal, or determine values, or experience emotional excitement - he simply obeys the reflexes that have taken root in him for long practice.” Such societies are characteristic of the pre-industrial era.

Weber characterizes the rational-legal type of power as “dominance by virtue of “legality”, by virtue of belief in the obligatory nature of legal management and business “competence”, justified by rationally created rules, that is, orientation towards subordination in the implementation of established rules - domination in the form in which as it is carried out by the modern "civil servant" and all those holders of power who are similar to him in this respect. Thus, power is exercised in modern industrial states where people in organizations act in accordance with established laws and regulations.

Most interesting is the third type identified by Weber or type of "domination" - charismatic power.

"Charisma", in accordance with the early Christian tradition, is a concept for designating special abilities bestowed by God that distinguish and elevate a person above other people. Etymologically, "charisma" means a divine gift.

Weber defines charisma as follows: "authority beyond the ordinary gift (charisma), complete personal devotion and personal trust caused by the presence of the qualities of a leader in each person: revelations, heroism, etc. - charismatic domination, as it is carried out by the prophet, or - in the field politicians - an elected prince-commander, or a plebiscitary ruler, an outstanding demagogue and a political party leader. The followers of a charismatic leader submit without coercion, willingly and enthusiastically, to his authoritarian leadership. A charismatic leader calls for accomplishments, something new, unusual.

Weber, in accordance with the tradition of the classical school, believed that leadership is determined by the presence of a member of the organization of special qualities that can be more or less definitely considered "charismatic". Although he does not give a complete detailed list of the qualities of a leader that provide him with “charismatic” traits, it follows from the context of his works that these traits include will, determination, clarity of goals, leadership skills, the ability to “ignite” people, awaken the enthusiasm of followers and with perseverance and perseverance, relying on followers, manipulating them, to achieve goals.

Weber hardly suspected what a terrible force the mine was laid in the foundation of this whole construction. The bureaucratic system, as it turned out, has a remarkable feature - "the number of employees and the amount of work are completely unrelated."

However, it also has Advantages - accuracy, speed, unambiguity, subordination, reduction of friction, costs, material and human resources, hierarchy of power, control.

As a result of all the research, a classical model of organization was formed based on four principles:

a clear functional division of labor;

transmission of commands and orders along the "scalar chain" from top to bottom;

the unity of the manager;

Compliance with the "range of control".

All of the above principles of building an organization are valid for the present.

List of used literature

1. Management: Proc. manual for university students studying in the specialties 351300 Commerce and 061500 Marketing / Ed. V.V. Lukashevich, N.I. Astakhova. - M.: UNITI-DANA, 2005 - 255s. - (Series "Higher professional education: Management").

2. Fundamentals of management: Proc. for universities / D.D. Vachugov, T.E. Berezkina, N.A. Kislyakova and others; Ed. D.D. Vachugova. - 2nd ed. revised and additional - M.: Higher school, 2003. - 376 p.: ill.

3. Organization management: textbook / ed. A.G. Porshneva, Z.P. Rumyantseva, N.A. Solomatina. -- 2nd ed., revised. and additional -- M.: INFRA-N, 1998;

4. Management, 3rd ed. O.S. Vikhansky, A.I. Naumov. M.: 2002;

5. A.T. Zub, S.G. Smirnov. Leadership in management. Publisher: Sunday, CJSC "Print - Atelier", Moscow / 1999

6. "Management in Russia and abroad", 5 "2002. "Evolution of approaches to the problem of enterprise personnel management." Gutgaru R.D.

Administrative (classical) school of management

Administrative or classical school

Considers the issues of improving the organization as a whole, in contrast to the school of scientific management, which studied individual production operations. In many ways, this difference was determined by the personality of the school developers. Taylor started his career as a worker. Henri Fayol (Fayol H . ), whose name is associated with the emergence of the administrative school of management, and who is called the father of management, led a large coal mining company. The goal of the administrative (classical) school was to create universal principles of governance.

Practically all scientific directions of management were engaged in the development of general principles of management. However, the development of the principles of management of the administrative (classical) school of management has become most widespread. The 14 principles of management formulated by Henri Fayol have the following content:

1. Division of labor - specialization of work necessary for the efficient use of labor. 2. Authority and responsibility - each worker must be delegated authority sufficient to be responsible for the work performed. 3. Discipline - workers must obey the terms of the agreement between them and management, managers must apply fair sanctions to violators of the order. 4. Unity of command - the employee receives an order and reports to only one immediate superior. 5. Unity of action - all actions that have the same goal must be combined into groups and carried out according to a single plan. 6. Subordination of interests - the interests of the organization take precedence over the interests of individual employees. 7. Remuneration of personnel - the receipt by employees of a fair remuneration for their work.

8. Centralization - natural order in an organization that has a control center. The best results are achieved with the right proportion between centralization and decentralization. Authority (power) should be delegated in proportion to responsibility. 9. Scalar chain - an inextricable chain of commands, through which all orders are transmitted and communications are carried out between all levels of the hierarchy ("chain of chiefs"). 10. Order - a workplace for each employee and each employee at his workplace. 11. Fairness - established rules and agreements must be enforced fairly at all levels of the scalar chain. 12. Stability of staff - installation of employees on loyalty to the organization and long-term work, as high staff turnover reduces the efficiency of the organization. 13. Initiative - encouragement of employees to develop independent functions, within the boundaries of the powers delegated to them and the work performed. 14. Corporate spirit - the harmony of interests of the personnel and the organization ensures the unity of efforts (in unity - strength).

These principles cover two main aspects. One of them was the development of a rational system for managing the organization, in particular, determining the best way to divide the organization into divisions or work groups. The main contribution of the administrative school to management theory is that it considered management as a universal process, consisting of several interrelated functions, such as planning and organization. The second category of classical principles concerned the structure of the organization and the management of workers. An example is the principle of unity of command, according to which a person should receive orders from only one boss and obey only him alone.

Every week, Look At Me breaks down a common misconception and tries to figure out why it's so appealing to the majority of the people who defend it, and, in the end, why it's not true. In the new issue, we are talking about the fact that the assembly line was not actually invented by Henry Ford.

Statement:

Henry Ford invented the conveyor belt.

The name of Henry Ford is forever entrenched in the history of mankind. First of all, thanks to the brand of the same name: Ford was famous for his desire to make a cheap, affordable car for the masses, which he really achieved. Also, his surname went down in history in the form of the economic term "Fordism". The essence of Fordism is in the new organization of in-line production, which was made possible with the help of the assembly line. So history ranked the conveyor itself among the inventions of Ford.

Why is it not:

Ford did not invent the conveyor, but first organized in-line production.

Prior to this, Ford had already assembled his first car, but he did it by hand, like all automakers of that time. That is why the car was a piece of goods and extremely expensive, and the repair of transport turned into a technical puzzle. The automotive industry had to be brought under uniform standards.

The first step towards conveyor production was the assembly line, which appeared in 1901 in the Oldsmobile company, founded by Ransom Olds, who can be called the inventor of the conveyor in the modern sense. Parts and assemblies of the future car were moved on special carts from one working point to another. The prototype of the conveyor increased the production of cars from 400 to 5,000 units per year. Henry Ford understood the potential of Olds' invention and turned on all the resources to get around it by adapting and improving the developed system.

In 1903, Ford, studying the technology of stream production, visited the enterprise, where he observed how the carcasses of animals, moving under the influence of gravity, fell under the knives of the dividers. By adding belts to the conveyor, Ford introduced the improved technology to its factories. Thus, Ford, obsessed with the idea of ​​​​making its cars affordable, successfully used the experience accumulated before it. As a result, the Ford Model T cost about $400 and was built in less than 2 hours. This made Henry Ford a millionaire and a recognized engineering genius of the 20th century - but he did not invent the conveyor itself.

School of Human Relations School of "Human Relations" (1930s-1950s)

This school has focused its attention on a person: on how he interacts with others, how he reacts to various kinds of situations, wanting to satisfy his needs. The school of "human relations" sought to build models of human behavior, how it differs from the classical one, which dealt with organization models.

This scientific direction in management theory arose after it was discovered that labor regulation and high wages do not necessarily lead to an increase in labor productivity, as representatives of the school of scientific management believed.

A significant contribution to the development of the school of "human relations" was made in the 1940s-1960s. behavioral scientists (from the English behavior - behavior), who developed theories of motivation, in particular the hierarchical theory of needs (A. Maslow) and the theory of motivation, depending on job satisfaction or dissatisfaction (F. Herzberg).

Elton Mayo(1880-1949), founder of the "human relations" school, conducted the "Hawthorne Experiment", which proved that a person's behavior in an organization and the results of his work depend entirely on the social conditions in which this person is in the organization, and on the relationship that has developed between workers and between workers and managers.

The Hawthorne experiment led to the following conclusions:

social norms of behavior affect labor productivity;

social incentives have a significant impact on the behavior of members of the organization; so in the course of the experiment, cases were recorded when social incentives completely blocked the effect of economic incentives;

group factors of behavior dominate over personal ones;

informal leadership is important for the activities of the entire group.

It turned out that at times employees react much more strongly to the pressure of their colleagues in the work group than to the desires of management or monetary incentives. Their motivation was based not only on economic factors, but also on various kinds of needs that money can satisfy only partially and indirectly. This means that if a manager takes care of his subordinates, their level of satisfaction will increase, which will lead to an increase in labor productivity.

The school of "human relations" defines management as ensuring the performance of work with the help of other people and recommended to manage human relations to use effective methods of work of direct supervisors, consultations with employees, providing them with the opportunity to communicate at work.

Mayo came to the conclusion that the productivity of an organization depends not only on working conditions, the availability of material incentives and management, but also on the social and psychological climate in the working environment. The founders of the "human relations" school recommended that managers determine the relationships that have developed in small informal groups, identify their leader, and then use the characteristics of such groups (psychological and social) to establish interpersonal relationships and increase workers' satisfaction with their work.

The main provisions of the school of "human relations" are as follows:

the labor collective is a special social group;

interpersonal relationships act as a factor in the growth of the efficiency and potential of each employee;

a rigid hierarchy of subordination is incompatible with the very nature of man and his freedom;

Leaders should focus more on people than on products produced by the organization.

In his main book, The Social Problems of Industrial Culture, Mayo argued that the result of putting his theory into practice would be increased prestige and loyalty of subordinates. In his opinion, it is quite realistic to achieve the desired goals in the organization precisely by meeting the needs of employees. Therefore, the art of communication should become the most important criterion for the selection of administrators, starting with the shop foreman.

Representatives of the "human relations" school expressed disagreement with some of the statements of the classical school. Thus, the complete division of labor leads to the impoverishment of the content of labor itself; only “top-down” hierarchy of power is not effective. Therefore, Mayo and his colleagues proposed to form a commission for production management, which would ensure more effective communication in the organization and understanding of ideas, would allow better perception of the overall policy of the organization and implement it more effectively.

Delegation of responsibility "human" was considered as a two-way process: from below, the functions of administration and coordination of activities are delegated, and from above - the right to make decisions within the framework of their production functions.

Mayo and his supporters used the methods of psychology and sociology in their work; thus, they were the first to use tests and special forms of interviews when hiring personnel. The management school of "human relations" enriched psychology with data on the relationship between the human psyche and labor activity.

Representatives classical(administrative) schools have developed principles, recommendations and rules for managing the organization without taking into account the individual characteristics of employees. Such an interpretation of the place of man in production could not lead to a unity of interests between entrepreneurs and workers. The theory of human relations is aimed at increasing attention to people. It provides knowledge about how people interact and respond to different situations in an effort to satisfy their needs. Unlike the classical school, which built models of the organization, this school tried to build models of employee behavior.

Prominent representatives of the school: E. Mayo, M. Follett, A. Maslow. The theory of human relations arose on the basis of a generalization of the results of experiments with groups of workers at the factories of the Western Electric company in the city of Hawthorne, which lasted 13 years (1927-1939).

The "Hawthorne Experiments" marked the beginning of:

numerous studies of relationships in organizations;

accounting for psychological phenomena in groups;

identifying motivation to work in interpersonal relationships;

studying the role of a certain person and a small group in an organization;

determining ways to provide psychological impact on the employee.

The scientific basis for the school of human relations was psychology, sociology, and the so-called behavioral sciences.

Mayo argued that the productivity of workers depends not only on working conditions, material incentives and actions of the administration, but also on the psychological climate among workers.

Representatives of this school questioned a number of provisions of the administrative school. For example, the maximum division of labor, which in practice led to the impoverishment of the content of labor, as well as coordination through the hierarchy. They believed that the direction of power only from the top down is not effective. In this regard, coordination through commissions was proposed. In a new way, they approached the principle of delegation of authority. It was viewed as a two-way process. The lower levels of the organization must delegate up the functions of administration and coordination of activities, and the upper levels - down the right to make decisions within their production functions.

The main provisions of the school of human relations:

people are mainly motivated by social needs and feel their own individuality through their relationships with other people;

as a result industrial revolution work has lost its attractiveness, so a person must seek satisfaction in social relationships;

people are more responsive to the social influence of a group of peers than to incentives and control measures coming from management;

the employee responds to the orders of the head if the head can satisfy the social needs of his subordinates.

The School of Human Relations made the following amendments to the previous management concepts:

increased attention to human social needs;

improving jobs by reducing the negative effects of over-specialization;

abandoning the emphasis on the hierarchy of power and calling for the participation of workers in management;

increasing acceptance of informal relationships.

The School of Human Relations emphasized the collective. Therefore, by the beginning of the 1950s. in addition to it, behavioral concepts have been formed aimed at studying and developing the individual capabilities and abilities of individual workers.

Behavioral Sciences psychology and sociology have made the study of human behavior in the workplace strictly scientific.

Representatives of this trend: D. McGregor, F. Herzberg, P. Drucker, R. Likert.

The school of behavioral science has departed significantly from the school of human relations, focusing primarily on methods for establishing interpersonal relationships, motivation, leadership, communication in an organization, on studying and creating conditions for the fullest realization of the abilities and potential of each employee.

Within the framework of this school, the theories of Hee KMcGregor are interesting, in which he presented two main approaches to the organization of management.

Theory X is characterized by the following view of man. Average person:

naturally lazy, he tries to avoid work;

unambitious, does not like responsibility;

indifferent to the problems of the organization;

naturally resists change;

is aimed at extracting material benefits;

gullible, not too smart, lack of initiative, prefers to be led.

This view of man is reflected in the policy of "carrot and stick", in the tactics of control, in the procedures and methods that make it possible to tell people what they should do, determine if they do it, and apply rewards and punishments.

According to McGregor, people are not at all like that by nature and they have the opposite qualities. Therefore, managers need to be guided by another theory, which he called the theory of Y.

The main provisions of Theory Y:

people are not naturally passive and do not oppose the goals of the organization. They become so as a result of working in the organization;

people strive for results, they are able to generate ideas, take responsibility and direct their behavior to achieve the goals of the organization;

the responsibility of management is to help people realize and develop these human qualities.

In theory Y much attention is paid to the nature of relationships, creating an environment conducive to maximizing initiative and ingenuity. At the same time, the emphasis is not on external control, but on self-control, which occurs when the employee perceives the goals of the company as his own.

Contributions of the School of Human Relations and the School of Behavioral Sciences to Management Theory.

Application of methods of managing interpersonal relationships to improve the productivity of workers.

Application of sciences human behavior to the management and formation of the organization in such a way that each employee can be used to the fullest in accordance with his potential.

The theory of employee motivation. Coordination of the interests of labor and capital through motivation.

The concept of management and leadership styles.

As in earlier theories, the representatives of these schools advocated "the only best way" to solve managerial problems. His main postulate was that the correct application of the science of human behavior will always increase the efficiency of both the individual employee and the organization as a whole. However, as it turned out later, such techniques as changing the content of work and the participation of employees in the management of the enterprise are effective only in certain situations. Despite many important positive results, this approach sometimes failed in situations that differed from those explored by its founders.

2. Schools of Human Relations and Behavioral Sciences

The logical conclusion and implementation of the concepts of the classical school was the empire of Henry Ford. He, like G. Emerson, focused on everything manufacturing process, but also used the principles of F. Taylor for the scientific organization of workers' labor. These principles he applied in mass production. G. Ford called his control system "the terror of the machine." Strict regulation of the labor of workers, the conveyor system, standardization of technology led to the fact that the enterprise acted like an automaton.

So, the representatives of the classical school developed the principles, recommendations and rules of the compulsory system of work, built on scientific norms. This system eliminates the influence of individual workers. Such a mechanical interpretation of the place of man in production could not lead to the unity of interests of entrepreneurs and workers. As the president of one company noted, “Each person has a body, mind and soul. Each of these parts, especially the soul, must be used to achieve maximum performance." Representatives of another school, human relations, sought to achieve this goal.

The theory of human relations draws attention to people. It provides knowledge about how people interact and respond to different situations in an effort to satisfy their needs. The school is trying to build models of behavior in contrast to the classical one, which built models of the organization.

The founders of a new direction in management theory are Elton Mayo and Mary Parker Follet. If F. Taylor promised the managers an increase in labor productivity, then E. Mayo promised an increase in the prestige and devotion of subordinates.

The theory of human relations arose on the basis of a generalization of the results of experiments with groups of workers at the factories of the Western Electric company in Hawthorne, which lasted 13 years (1927-1939).

E. Mayo came to the conclusion that the productivity of workers depends not only on working conditions, material incentives and actions of the administration, but also on the social and psychological climate among workers. The main recommendations of this school come down to identifying the role of relationships in small informal groups and using the psychological and social characteristics of the group, establishing interpersonal relationships to increase job satisfaction.

Representatives of this school questioned a number of theses of the classical school. For example, the maximum division of labor, which led to the impoverishment of the content of labor, as well as coordination through the hierarchy. They believed that the direction of power only from the top down is not effective. In this regard, coordination through commissions was proposed. In a new way, they approached the principle of delegation of responsibility. It was viewed as a two-way process. The lower levels of the organization delegate up the functions of administration and coordination of activities, and the upper ones delegate down the decision-making power within their production functions. The school paid much attention to motivation and communication.

Further, the concept of human relations was developed by the school of behavioral sciences. Its representatives were Abraham Maslow, Chris Argyris, Douglas McGregor, Frederick Herzberg. The goal of this school was to increase the efficiency of the organization by increasing the efficiency of its human resources, which are the main resources of the organization. The school focused on studying and creating conditions for the fullest realization of the abilities and potential of each employee. Therefore, it is necessary to develop cooperation with subordinates. To establish it, it is useful to know the theory X and the theory Y of D. McGregor, in which he presented two main approaches to the organization of management. Theory X is characterized by the following view of man.

1. The average person is naturally lazy and tries to avoid work.

2. He lacks ambition, he does not like responsibility, lacks initiative, prefers to be led.

3. He is indifferent to the needs of the organization.

4. He is naturally resistant to change.

5. Aimed at extracting material benefits.

6. He is gullible, not too smart - an easy prey for a charlatan and a demagogue.

This view of the individual is reflected in the "carrot and stick" policy, which leads to an emphasis on control tactics, on procedures and methods that make it possible to tell people what they should do, determine if they do it, and apply rewards and punishments. Since the underlying assumption is that people should be forced to do what is necessary for the success of the organization, attention naturally turns to methods of management and control.

According to McGregor, people are not at all like that by nature and they have opposite qualities, which are presented in the theory of W.

1. People are not naturally passive and do not oppose the goals of the organization. They become so as a result of work in the organization.

2. People strive for results, they are able to generate ideas, take responsibility and direct their behavior to achieve the goals of the organization - all this is in people.

The duty of management is to help people recognize and develop these human qualities. Hence, in theory Y, much attention is paid to the nature of relationships, creating an environment conducive to the emergence of commitment to the organization, its goals, providing an opportunity for maximum manifestation of initiative, ingenuity and independence in achieving them; therefore, the emphasis is not on external control, but on self-control, which occurs when the employee perceives the goals of the company as his own.

In our country, the ideas of scientific management labor collectives developed by Alexei Gastev, Osip Yermansky, Nikolai Vitke.

The achievements of the schools of human relations and behavioral sciences were that they:

1) expanded understanding and practical use organizational processes such as motivation, communications, leadership, group dynamics;

2) viewed the members of the organization as people with rich abilities, and not as tools to achieve goals;

3) created models of behavior in which each employee could be used in accordance with his potential. A common shortcoming of the early schools of management - classical and human relations - is the lack of complexity of research, the study of any one element of the organization, the search for the only way to solve managerial problems. This shortcoming was the reason for the emergence of a new direction in the evolution of managerial thought - the school of social systems, or the systems approach. The school was founded in the late 1950s. Its representatives were A. Chandler, G. Simon, D. March, P. Drucker, and in Russia - V. G. Afanasiev, I. V. Blauberg, E. G. Yudin. They considered the organization as a complex set of interdependent and interacting elements, and the person as one of the elements. In addition, the school emphasizes that the organization is an open system embedded in a more complex system - the external environment with which it is in constant interaction. The system receives some resources from external environment, transforms them and returns finished products to the outside world. At the same time, it is characterized by entropy and synergy. Systems approach emphasizes the need to take into account in management activities the influence and interaction of many factors that are both inside and outside the organization and have either a direct or indirect influence on it.

The main parts of the system in this approach are: individuals, formal and informal groups, their relationships, types of statuses and roles in groups. Parts of the system are connected organizational forms which include formal and informal structures, communication channels, decision-making processes. The systems approach combined the contributions of all schools that dominated the theory and practice of management at different times. The School of Social Systems continued to develop modern theories motivation, communications, leadership, began to develop theories of decision making, conflicts, flexible organizational structures, strategic management.

One of the most popular in the 1980s. system concepts of management is the 7-S theory developed by T. Peters, R. Waterman, R. Pascal and E. Athos. They believed that an effective organization is formed on the basis of 7 interrelated and corresponding elements. Changing one of them requires changing the others. This:

1) strategy - a comprehensive plan to achieve the mission and goals of the organization by ensuring consistency between the organization and its environment;

2) structure - the internal structure of the organization, which determines the place, rights, duties and responsibilities of each employee, unit in the organization; definition of subordination between them;

3) systems - procedures and routine processes occurring in the organization ( control systems, information and motivational systems);

4) staff - key groups of personnel, characterized by age, gender, education;

5) leadership style - the manner of managing the organization and organizational culture;

6) qualifications - the distinctive capabilities of key people in the organization;

7) shared values ​​- the meaning and content of the main activities that the organization brings to its members.