Origin The Bible says that the first man was created by God from clay. Scientists claim that clay is a secondary product formed as a result of the destruction of rocks during the weathering process. Most of the clays are sediments of water flows, accumulating at the bottom of lakes and seas.

Composition: Clay contains alumina (Al 2 O 3 -39%), silica (SiO 2 -47%) and 14% water, and also includes quite useful trace elements and mineral salts. Clay contains: magnesium, manganese, silver, zinc, calcium, copper and other elements. The color of clays is varied and is mainly due to the impurities of minerals or organic compounds that color them.

In folk medicine, as a rule, it is the clay that is used that is mined in the places where the patient lives. In scientific medicine, preference is given to white and blue clays. Near our city of Kumertau there is a deposit of this precious clay. It is located south of the city, in the vicinity of the village of Sandin. Many residents of Kumertau know about this. And they don’t just know, they use the gifts of our rich Bashkir land.

Clay in cosmetology Blue clay has an anti-inflammatory effect, prevents the appearance of acne, promotes the healing of wounds on the skin, cleanses it well and improves complexion. Helps smooth out facial wrinkles, rejuvenates the skin, making it firmer and more elastic, lightens freckles and age spots. Just like white clay, blue clay is more suitable for caring for oily skin types. Freckles

Anti-wrinkle mask Pour in blue clay infusion of herbs: lavender, sage, linden blossom, chamomile (2 tbsp). The consistency should resemble sour cream. Divide the resulting mass in half. We put one in the refrigerator to cool, the other, on the contrary, is heated in a water bath. Then we apply each part of the mask onto clean gauze and apply it to the face one by one for 5 minutes. Just remember that the eye area should not fall under the mask. The course of treatment is 1 time per week. Frequency – as needed and desired. Nourishing mask Mix a spoonful of clay with the pulp of one tomato. Apply for 20 minutes on a clean face and then rinse (you can use milk). Blue clay masks are also an excellent hair treatment. They not only stop hair loss, but also promote more active growth of new hair, eliminate dandruff, and saturate the hair with oxygen.

Determination of Fe 3+ 4 Fe Fe(CN) 6 4- Fe 4 3 ions;

Results of laboratory studies of blue clay 1. The clay filtrate medium turned out to be slightly acidic, pH 6 2. The concentration of iron ions is about 2.0 mg/l - pink color of the solution with ammonium thiocyanate 3. Cobalt was not detected 4. Lead ions were not detected 5. According to physical properties, clay can be classified as “fat” clays
Cautions: - You cannot use clay from the upper (up to 20 m) layers; - You cannot use clay that has not been tested for chemical composition and bacteriological contamination in special laboratories, - You cannot store medicinal clay in rooms, containers and conditions that do not ensure the preservation of its medicinal properties and safety. - Clay cannot be reused for external use.

Conclusions and recommendations: Local blue clay can be used for cosmetic purposes; it is more oily than red clay. Comparing the qualitative composition of red and blue clay, we conclude that red clay is superior to blue clay in iron content. Only laboratory analysis can provide more accurate data.

Educational research work, 5th grade. Clay. Properties of clay

Relevance.
Clay is a common sedimentary rock that holds many secrets for us. We wanted to reveal at least part of them.

Target: Exploring clay from different perspectives
Tasks:
1. Collect and study information about clay.
2. Systematize the studied material.
3. Find experimental techniques.
4. Conduct experiments with clay.
5. Draw conclusions.

Object of study: sedimentary rocks.

Subject of study: clay

Theoretical research methods: selection, reading, studying, presentation of information, summarizing.

Practical research methods: chemical experiments, excursions, photography, note-taking, presentation preparation.

Hypothesis: As a result of the work, we plan to get acquainted with the history of our native land, learn about clay deposits in the Tyumen region, and the use of clay in practical human activities. Conduct experiments with different types of clay to find out its properties.

1. Literature review
1.1. Basic concept. Sources of clay rocks.
Clay is a fine-grained sedimentary rock, pulverized when dry, plastic when moistened.
The main source of clay rocks is feldspar, the decay of which under the influence of atmospheric phenomena forms kaolinite and other hydrates of aluminum silicates. Some clays are sediments from water flows that have fallen to the bottom of lakes and seas.
1.2. Minerals contained in clays.
Kaolinite (Al2O3 2SiO2 2H2O) Andalusite, disthene and sillimanite (Al2O3 SiO2)
Halloysite (Al2O3 SiO2 H2O).
Hydrargillite (Al2O3 3H2O).
Diaspore (Al2O3·H2O) Corundum (Al2O3). Monothermite (0 Al2O3 2SiO2 1.5H2O). Montmorillonite (MgO Al2O3 3SiO2 1.5H2O). Muscovite (K2O Al2O3 6SiO2 2H2O). Nakrite (Al2O3 SiO2 2H2O). Pyrophyllite (Al2O3 4SiO2 H2O)
The main chemical components of clays are SiO2 (30-70%), Al2O3 (10-40%) and H2O (5-10%); Fe2O3 (FeO), TiO2, CaO, MgO, K2O, Na2O, CO2, and less often MnO, SO3, P2O5 are present in minor quantities.
The composition of clays includes mainly kaolinite, monothermite, montmorillonite, halloysite, hydromicas, and sometimes palygorskite.

1.3. Clay deposits in the Tyumen region.
245 deposits have been explored in the southern regions of the Tyumen region building materials. Including 204 deposits of brick-expanded clay.
Tyumennerud supplies the market with almost 100% of the clay mined in the Tyumen region and develops the only industrial clay quarry in the Tyumen region. The Kyshtyrlinsky clay quarry is located at the Kyshtyrlinsky brick-expanded clay deposit. This is the main source of raw materials for manufacturers of ceramic bricks and expanded clay in Tyumen and the Tyumen region.
Every year, up to 500 thousand tons of clay are extracted from the quarry.
15 deposits have been discovered in the Isetsky district; brick-expanded clay and 1 clay occurrence. All deposits have been explored in detail and are classified as “medium” in terms of reserve volumes. The clay is suitable for the production of solid bricks and expanded clay.
The Isetskoye field is under development, located 6 km northeast of the village. Isetskoe.
The clays of the Rafailovskoye deposit, located in the undistributed fund, are of high quality. The raw materials are suitable for the production of M75 bricks.

1.4. Factories in the Tyumen region using clay as a raw material.
The main consumers of clay are the Vinzilinsky expanded clay gravel plant and the Vinzilinsky ceramic wall materials plant. Technological clay is also used by Tyumen builders for waterproofing elements of buildings and structures.
The Vinzilinsky expanded clay gravel plant began operating in the suburbs of Tyumen in December 1980. The main activity of VZKG LLC is the production of expanded clay gravel from clay from the Kyshtyrlinskoye deposit, located 12 km from the plant.
The Ishim Brick Plant produces and sells solid ceramic bricks of strength grades M-75, M-100, M-125.
Yalutorovsky wall materials plant "Porevit". The company produces sand-lime bricks with strength grades M-150 and M-200, and frost resistance grades F50. Application of the most modern technologies allow us to produce products with precise geometry, durability, increased frost resistance and the highest environmental friendliness.

Tyumen Building Materials Plant produces and sells expanded clay blocks M50 and M75, wood concrete blocks M50.

1.5. Clay masters.
Victor Seredin, a resident of the Ishim district of the Tyumen region, mastered pottery as an adult. Now he will never part with what he loves. He was taught this craft by a Georgian, ceramics specialist Chingiz Kapanadze, who worked at the wine industry. vodka factory in the city of Ishim. Victor is now an experienced potter. There are many different products in his workshop. There are flower pots, braziers, and tea sets here. Each product bears the marking “Pottery shop of Ishim.
Ignatchenko Alexander Georgievich is a native of Ishim. Born in 1948 He has been working as an artist since 1965. He was taught his craft by ceramics specialist Chingiz Kapanadze. Alexander Georgievich worked at the plant as a ceramic artist. At the factory he learned the technology of working with clay.

Irina Vysokikh carries out activities to create unique products from baked clay. The master began his activity in 2011. Her signature whistles and bells became popular among the residents of Tyumen.
Evgeniy Bocharnikov conducts thematic master classes in the Fabrica loft space. Under the strict guidance of Evgeniy Bocharnikov, anyone can make pots, plates and other dishes and decorations.

1.6. Classification of clays.
There are a huge variety of clays on our planet. They all differ in their composition, properties and, accordingly, color. The color of clay is usually determined by its chemical composition. Most clays are gray in color, but there are clays in white, red, yellow, brown, blue, green, purple and even black. The color is due to impurities of ions - chromophores, mainly iron in valence 3 (red, yellow) or 2 (green, bluish).
White clay /kaolin/ ​​contains silica, zinc, magnesium.
Green - copper, iron, some trace elements in the form of salts.
Yellow clay - iron, potassium in the form of salts
Red clay - potassium iron salts
Blue clay is universal and valued more than all others. In tsarist times, blue clay was even sold for gold and exported to other countries. Contains almost all trace elements and mineral salts necessary for our body, cobalt, cadmium;
Yellow clay - sodium, ferric iron, sulfur and its salts.
Black clay - iron, calcium, magnesium, quartz, potassium, radium, phosphate, nitrogen, strontium, silica.
Gray clay- divalent iron compounds, titanium dioxide
According to the nature of the clays, they are divided into “fat” and “lean”. Clays with high plasticity are called “fat” because when soaked they give a tactile sensation of a fatty substance. “Fatty” clay is shiny and slippery to the touch (if you take such clay on your teeth, it slips), and contains few impurities. The dough made from it is tender. Bricks made from such clay crack when dried and fired, and to avoid this, so-called “lean” substances are added to the mix: sand, “lean” clay, burnt brick, potter’s scrap, sawdust and etc.
Clays with low plasticity or non-plasticity are called “lean”. They are rough to the touch, with a matte surface, and when rubbed with a finger, they easily crumble, separating earthy dust particles. “Skinny” clays contain a lot of impurities and do not produce shavings when cut with a knife. Bricks made from “lean” clay are fragile and crumbly.

2. Clay research methods.
2.1. Determination of fat content of clays.
Weigh a clay sample weighing 25 g on a scale. Place the sample
In a 500 ml beaker, add water to the 400 ml mark and stir well with a glass shelf.
Observe the process of deposition of clay particles.
(Usually clay is poorly wetted by water and settles to the bottom for a long time, which indicates its hydrophobic properties.) “Fat” clays settle slowly, “lean” clays settle quickly.

2.2. Determination of acid-base properties of clay.
Place a 25 g clay sample into a 200-250 ml beaker. Add 100 ml of water to a glass and stir well. Place a strip of universal indicator into the resulting suspension. Compare the color of the wet strip with the color test on the indicator package and determine the pH of the aqueous clay solution.

2.3. Experience proving the use of clay as a filter.
Take 2 test tubes. Place 2 funnels, one with clay, the other with sand. Filter the potassium permanganate solution.
Observe for 3 days.

2.4. Study of the antimicrobial properties of clay. Pour milk into two jars. Place a clay sample weighing 5-10 g at the bottom of one jar. Leave both jars in the shade and monitor the condition of the milk several times a day for several days.

2.5. Comparison of adsorption properties of sedimentary rocks.
Pour the potassium permanganate solution into three flasks. Add sand, clay and chalk to them. Leave for 2 days. Observe

2.6. Comparison of adsorption properties of clay.
Pour potassium permanganate solution of different concentrations into three flasks. Add clay. Leave for two days. Observe.

2.7. Determination of clay density.
Weigh a small piece of clay and record its mass. Using a measuring cylinder, determine the volume of the piece. Record the volume. Using the formula p = m: V, calculate the density, present the results in table form

3. Results of the practical part.
3.1. The fat content of the clay was determined.
We weighed a clay sample weighing 25 g on a scale. Placed a canopy
into a 500 ml beaker, add water to the 400 ml mark and stir well with a glass rod.
The process of deposition of clay particles was observed.
For the experiments, 6 types of clay were taken: white, yellow, blue, red, green and black. We bought clay at a pharmacy. The red one was taken from our area.
Observed: poor wetting of clay with water. The rock settled to the bottom for a long time. Clay repels water.
Local red and black clay settled faster than others. This means they are “skinny”. Judging by experience: white, yellow, green, blue are “fat”. They settled very slowly.

3.2. Determination of acid-base properties of clay. Place a clay sample weighing 25 g in a 200-250 ml beaker. Add 100 ml of water to the glass and stir well. A strip of a universal indicator was placed in the resulting suspension. We compared the color of the wet strip with the color test on the indicator packaging and determined the pH of the aqueous clay solution.
Blue pH = 8
White pH = 6
Yellow pH = 6
Green pH = 6
Red pH = 7
Black pH = 8
Experience has shown that clay solutions are all approximately the same, the reaction of the medium is close to neutral.

3.3 We took 2 test tubes. They placed 2 funnels, the first with clay, the second with sand. Filtered with a solution of potassium permanganate.
Observed for 3 days.
We noticed that in the first test tube the potassium permanganate solution became lighter than in the second.
Conclusion: the potassium permanganate solution became lighter because clay has a sponge-like surface structure, unlike sand. Therefore, clay is able to absorb colored substances.
3.4. Study of the antimicrobial properties of clay.
Milk was poured into seven glasses. Clay was added to each glass: local, yellow, white, green, black, blue; one glass without clay. We observed milk souring after 24 hours in a glass without clay; on the second day, milk with local clay soured. The milk and colored clay were kept for two days.

3.5. In a flask with clay, discoloration of the potassium permanganate solution was observed; in a flask with sand and chalk, there was no discoloration. Clay has a porous surface, so dyes stick to it.

3.6. Adsorption was better in a dark solution, in a light solution - slightly

3.6. The density of the clay was determined.
Yellow clay. Weight 10.7 g. Volume 5 ml. Density 2.14 g/ml.
Blue clay. Weight 9.4 g. Volume 5 ml. Density 1.88 g/ml.
Black clay. Weight 11.5 g. Volume 5 ml. Density 2.3 g/ml.
Green clay. Weight 12.0 g. Volume 5 ml. Density 2.4 g/ml.
Local clay. Weight 20.1 g. Volume 10 ml. Density 2.01 g/ml.
White clay. Weight 12.8 g. Volume 5 ml. Density 2.56 g/ml.

Conclusion: white clay has the highest density, blue clay has the lowest. The density is different because they have different composition.
Local clay contains sand, which reduces its density

Generalization.
During work:
- We learned about clay deposits in the Tyumen region and factories that use clay as a raw material.
- We met the masters of clay making.
- Received information about the substances contained in different types clay.
- We learned to conduct experiments and, based on their results, make calculations and draw conclusions.

Municipal educational institution

secondary school with. B-Roy

Urzhumsky district, Kirov region

Nomination "Natural Local History"

Work completed

11th grade student

Lozhkina Irina

Supervisor:

Semyonova Olga Yurievna,

geography teacher

Introduction (relevance of the topic, goals and objectives)

Main part:

2.1. anthropogenic relief of the Kirov region

2.2. anthropogenic relief of the Urzhum region

2.3. quarry - as an example of anthropogenic impact on nature in our area:

a) geographical location of the quarry;

b) the nature of the area where the quarry is located;

c) the size of the quarry;

d) the nature of the outcrop (cliff, quarry, scree);

e) description of layers (from bottom to top).

3. Conclusion

4. References

5. Applications

Introduction

From the first steps of his intelligent activity, man began to change the relief, first in connection with the construction of dwellings, economic structures and fortifications, then in connection with the creation of fields, dams, and roads. But the most significant impact comes from mining. In the places where they are mined, entire mountains arise from waste rock dumps, and quarry depressions from mined-out rocks. There are so many of these man-made landforms today that their number and size can be compared with some natural landforms.

There is hardly a person in our country who has not heard about quarries, has not seen them and does not know how they change the landscape. People have known about quarries since school - teachers told them about it in geography and local history lessons.

No articles or volumes of scientific papers have been written about quarries. But this topic is relevant today, because we are all directly connected with the surface of the earth and our daily life is connected with the life of the nature that surrounds us.

And hardly anyone has thought about what will happen to the surface of the Earth if we create more and more new quarries? Will the surface of our planet turn into a lunar landscape?

When working on the research topic, I was faced with a contradiction between the available information about the expedition organized by the teacher of the Kirov State Pedagogical Institute D.D. Lavrov in the mid-60s of the 20th century. to study and describe erosional landforms on the territory of our administrative district (in particular Yablonevy Log), and the lack of published results of this study in the press.

That's why, target this work - study the quarry as an example of anthropogenic impact on the surface and nature of the occurrence of rocks on the slopes of the quarry.

Research objectives:

Study literature on the topic.

Make a map of the location of the quarry in the vicinity of the village. Big Roy.

Conduct a survey and describe the quarry as an example of anthropogenic impact on nature in our area.

Take rock samples and sketch the geological outcrop and create a geological column.

Hypothesis: Is it possible, by studying the quarry, to look into the distant past of the Earth?

Object of study: career.

Subject of study: rocks that make up the quarry and their main parameters (the thickness of each layer, the nature of the boundaries, the color of the rock, the structure and mineralogical composition of each sample).

Research methods: observation, cartographic, mathematical, modeling, analysis, synthesis.

Main part

Anthropogenic relief of the Kirov region

There is less and less natural surroundings,

more and more environment.

A. Voznesensky

Anthropogenic relief is created by humans in the process of economic activity. These are purposefully created forms - road embankments, quarries and waste rock dumps during mining, which arose as a result of increased economic activity. Based on their origin, anthropogenic relief is conventionally divided into two groups:man-made, created industrial activities, Andagrogenic, arising as a result of agricultural activity.

Technogenic relief arises during the development of mineral resources, the creation of hydraulic structures, and urban planning. The nature and intensity of surface changes depend on the type of minerals and the method of their development. Deposits of building materials are mined using open pit mining to a depth of 25 m. As a result, quarries are created.

The quarry is industrial development rocks by opening large areas of the earth's surface.

On the territory of the Kirov region, technogenic relief is presented in the northeast and southwest of the territory. In the northeast there is the Vyatsko-Kama deposit of phosphorites, which are mined by open-pit mining from a depth of up to 20 m. Consequently, the quarries formed after their extraction reach this depth. The total area of ​​land in need of reclamation exceeds 1000 hectares. In the open-pit mining method, drilling and blasting operations are often used. Explosions create a system of open cracks up to 10 m deep, which increases the permeability of soils and leads to the development of block screes and landslides.

By mining peat, the surface is disturbed to a depth of 1.5–4 m, but over large areas. Thus, over half of the disturbed lands are due to peat mining.

In the southwest of the region there are Soviet stone quarries. There are five limestone quarries in this area: Suvodsky, Chimbulatsky, Popovtsevsky, Kremeshkovsky and Beresnyatsky. During the construction of roads, artificial landforms are formed -road embankments and excavations, which subsequently disrupt surface runoff and activate the processes of erosion and subsidence. Relief changes mainly occur within a narrow strip - 200-300 m and extend to depths of 10 m over many hundreds of kilometers of roads.

Dredging, channel straightening and bottom cleaning works are widely carried out to improve the navigability of the river. Vyatka and its large tributaries. Sand and sand-gravel mixtures are mined in river beds and floodplains, the total volume of which has more than tripled over the past 20 years. Contrary to environmental legislation, the Vyatka River in the vicinity of the city of Kirov has been turned into a sand and gravel quarry. The removal of significant volumes of solid sediment from the riverbed led to a change in the flow regime and sediment movement in significant areas and caused a number of undesirable phenomena in the area of ​​the Korchemkinsky water intake, worsening navigation conditions.

The relief also changes during engineering and construction works.bots when they are createdsurface of anthropogenic leveling nia, irregularities are filled in - hollows, beams, depressions, high marks are cut off.Agrogenic the relief is created to improve the conditions of agricultural production (leveling fields for machine cultivation). Generally economic activity enhances modern erosion processes.

On flat watersheds, precipitation and meltwater seep deep into the soil, while from the slopes they flow into depressions, where excess moisture is created. The moisture reserve in the soil is less on southern-facing slopes, where snow melts faster and moisture evaporates more intensely. Already on slopes steeper than 2°, planar washout and erosion are noticeable. As the steepness increases, the intensity of erosion processes increases and plowing slopes steeper than 8-10° becomes impractical due to severe soil erosion. Ravines destroy agricultural land, roads, and populated areas.

Anthropogenic relief of the Urzhum region

Both types of anthropogenic landscape are represented on the territory of the Urzhum region. The most widely represented grogenic relief that is created to improve the conditions of agricultural production: fields are leveled for machine cultivation, gullies are filled, ravines are lined with trees to stop their growth.

Technogenic The relief is represented by small quarries for the extraction of sand and limestone, intended for the repair of roads, dams, embankments and bridges created in the area. Limestone quarries are located on the right bank of the river. Vyatki near the village. R-Timkino. The largest clay quarry for the needs of the population is located at the entrance to the city of Urzhum from the V-Polyan side on Otryasovskaya Mountain. There are also small excavations for the extraction of clay and sand near every settlement in the region.

Quarry - as an example of anthropogenic impact on nature in our area

On the territory of the Bolshe-Roysky rural administrative district, in almost every settlement there are small quarries for the extraction of sand and clay for laying and repairing stoves, and limestone for building the foundations of houses is mined along river banks or in ravines. The size of the quarries is small. The depth and width of the quarry most often does not exceed two meters.

Geographical location of the quarry

To study a quarry - as an example of anthropogenic impact on the nature of our area, a quarry located outside our village was chosen. It is located on the left bank of the river. Royki south of the street. Central, at a distance of 2 km from the village. To get to this quarry we had to walk to the end of Tsentralnaya Street to the south, along the old highway, all the way to the bridge over the Royka River. The quarry appeared in the late 80s, when the “Roads” program began to operate in the region. This program was developed due to the fact that for a long time our region was a “blank spot” on the map of roads between the Center and the Urals. Most of the Kirov-Vyatskie Polyany road did not have a hard surface and was blocked during the spring roadlessness. Therefore, in the mid-80s of the 20th century. a special Decree of the Russian government was adopted on the construction of roads in the Kirov region. The construction of the section of the road in the Urzhum region towards V-Polyan began in 1986 and ended in 1991. During this period, sand was needed for the construction of an embankment to the bridge across the river. A swarm, which they began to take nearby, creating a quarry.

The nature of the area where the quarry is located;

The quarry is located on the steep left bank of the Roika River at an altitude of 8 m from the water's edge.

Quarry dimensions

The quarry has an oval shape with steep slopes on the southern, western and northern sides. There is no steep wall on the eastern side; on this side of the road there is a passage to the quarry. The quarry is 39 m wide, 40 m long, and the height of the vertical wall is 7.2 m.

Nature of the outcrop (cliff, quarry, scree)

To describe the outcrop, the western steep slope of the quarry, which has a scree, was chosen. The total height of the outcrop is 6.2 m, including a steep slope 5 m high, and a rock slide of 1.7 m. Length of the outcrop is 12.5 m

Description of layers (from bottom to top)

As a result of the study, it was established that the rocks in our area lie horizontally. By the depth of their occurrence, one can determine their absolute age: those rocks that lie below were formed earlier than those that lie above.

The lower part of the outcrop is occupied by a scree of rocks with a total height of 1.7 m. It is composed of loam.

Seam No. 1. Seam thickness is 1.2 m. The boundaries are clear. The rock is sand. Brown color. The structure is crumbly.

Seam No. 2. Seam thickness 0.46 m. ​​The boundaries are clear. The rock is sand. Color - dark brown. The structure is crumbly.

Seam No. 3. Seam thickness 0.7 m. The boundaries are clear. The rock is sandstone. Color grey. The structure is dense.

Seam No. 4. Thickness 0.25 m. The boundaries are clear. The rock is sand. Color grey. The structure is crumbly.

Seam No. 5. Thickness 0.37 m. The boundaries are clear. The rock is sandstone. Color grey. The structure is dense.

Seam No. 6. Thickness 0.49 m. The boundaries are clear. The rock is argillite - fossilized clay, which is very rare. Color red-brown. The structure is dense.

Seam No. 7. Thickness 0.27 m. The boundaries are clear. The rock is sandstone interspersed with red clay. Color - variegated. The structure is dense.

Seam No. 8. Thickness 0.7 m. The boundaries are clear. The breed is loam. Brown color. The structure is dense.

Seam No. 9. Thickness 0.7 m. The boundaries are clear. The rock is dusty sand. The color is light grey. The structure is crumbly.

Seam No. 10. Thickness 0.3 m. The boundaries are clear. The rock is silty sand (podzol). The color is light grey. The structure is crumbly.

Seam No. 11. Thickness 0.05 m. The boundaries are clear. Meadow felt. The color is dark brown. The structure is crumbly.

As a result of studying the rocks of the geological column, we can conclude: the alternation of rocks indicates that ancient deserts existed in our area for a long time, as evidenced by the presence of sand and sandstone. The presence of clay and shale mudstone suggests that extensive water basins existed here at certain periods.

Conclusion

Thus, the tasks set before the start of work have been completed. As a result of working on the topic, I studied the literature about quarries, compiled a map of the location of the quarry in the vicinity of the village. B. Roy.

She described the quarry as an example of human impact on the nature of our area.

As a result of the research, I came to the following conclusion:

1. The quarry is still widely used by the population for household needs, since not all village residents removed the stoves in their houses during the transition to gas supply, which means that both sand and clay will be needed to repair the stoves.

2. Last year, the quarry was used due to the fact that during the construction of gas distribution networks the road was severely destroyed and after the completion of the construction of the gas pipeline through the village, under an agreement with the administration, road repairs began, sand for which was taken from the quarry.

3. As a result of the work carried out in the quarry, the quarry began to increase in size.

4. It is necessary to continue the work of schoolchildren in studying anthropogenic landforms, which began this year, and the local administration and village residents must ensure that the quarry does not turn into a landfill.

Work on this topic will continue, because... The impact of quarries on the nature of vegetation and on the development of plants located on the steep slopes of the quarry has not been sufficiently studied.

Literature

- Alekseev, A.I. Geography of Russia: nature and population. - Moscow: Bustard, 2001. - 320 pp.: ill., map.

- Isupova, E.M. Anthropogenic relief [Text] / E.M. Isupova. // Encyclopedia of the Vyatka Land: nature. Kirov, vol. 7. 1997, / comp. A.N. Soloviev. - Kirov, 1998. - P. 135 - 137.

- Skinner, M., Redfern, D., Farmer, D. Geography: A-Z. - Moscow: Fair Press, 1999. - 528 p.: ill.

Applications

Appendix No. 1

Map of the location of the quarry in the vicinity of the village. Big Roy.

Scale: 1 cm - 250 m.

1: 25 000

Appendix No. 2

Map of the quarry

Scale: 1:300

1 cm - 3 m.

Appendix No. 3

Geological column of rock occurrence in a quarry.

A o A 1 - meadow felt

A 2 - leaching horizon, podzol

άQ4 - dusty sand

άQ3 - loam

άQ2 - sandstone interspersed with red clay

D3 - argillite

άQ2 - sandstone

άQ4 - sand

άQ2 - sandstone

άQ4 - sand

άQ4 - sand

άQ3 - loam

Appendix No. 4

View of the quarry from the road

View of the road from the quarry

Appendix No. 5

Nudity in a quarry. General form

Appendix No. 6

Measuring the height of scree

Appendix No. 7

Measuring the height of an outcrop using a tape measure

Appendix No. 8

Taking rock samples

Appendix No. 9

On a sandstone ledge

Appendix No. 10

View of the quarry from a steep cliff

Municipal budgetary educational institution

middle School of General education

with in-depth study of individual subjects No. 2, Tuymazy

municipal district Tuymazinsky district of the Republic of Bashkortostan

research

CLAY IN APPLIED ARTS

NOMINATION “PRIMARY CLASSES”

Performed

Shtepa Anastasia Igorevna

2nd grade student

MBOU Secondary School No. 2, Tuymazy

Supervisor

Fakhretdinova Liliya Rasimovna

teacher primary classes

MBOU Secondary School No. 2, Tuymazy

Introduction 3-4

Chapter 1. Main part

History of ceramics 5-6

Ceramics in Russia 7-9

Chapter 2. Practical part.

2.1. Study of clay properties 10-11

2.2. My work 12-13

Conclusion 14

Thesaurus 15

Literature 16

Applications

Introduction.

When I was just a little girl, I watched my mother doing needlework: sewing, knitting, embroidering, making something out of paper, sculpting. I was also interested in doing such handicrafts. While attending kindergarten and developmental classes at the Sema children's center, I learned that you can sculpt not only from plasticine, but from clay. I liked clay as a material for crafts and wanted to learn more about clay, about the history of this type of applied art. And this is what I managed to find out.

The history of ceramics originates in the biblical legend of the creation of the first man. According to this legend, the god Yahweh created the Garden of Eden, but he was bored walking around the garden alone, and he decided to create a person like himself. He took a piece of clay and sculpted a man out of it and breathed life into him. Yahweh named him Adam, which means “Red Man”, that is, a man made of clay.

Clay is an amazing natural material, there are no contraindications or age restrictions when working with it. Anyone can sculpt. Clay is sensitive to feelings and can effectively help respond to anger, aggression, fear, anxiety, guilt, thereby reducing the likelihood of their manifestation in real life. The plasticity of clay allows you to make changes to your work and “correct” your emotional state. Working with clay develops hand motor skills and kinesthetic sensations, the body begins to communicate through clay, and the human condition manifests itself most clearly.

Clay, flexible and plastic, becomes hard and durable after firing. Pottery in the villages was mainly carried out not by professionals, but by ordinary villagers, whose main job was not pottery. But it was they who perfected the skill of making pottery for centuries, accumulating experience and knowledge. Each master had his own style, and this is why the jars, pots and other utensils do not look monotonous. In this ancient profession, art and craft are intertwined, the inspired work of the artist and the exhausting work of the worker.

Ceramics and various products made from it are quite popular today. Modern masters capable of creating real works of art from it. Today we cannot imagine our kitchen without ceramic cookware. A lot of porcelain tableware is made, which is highly valued for its beauty.

The purpose of my work is to learn more about clay as a material for applied art, and also to study its influence on the formation of creative abilities.

I believe that the study of clay and its influence on people is still relevant today, because...clay is an excellent plastic material that allows you to sculpt a variety of three-dimensional objects; clay serves as a good material for making toys and crafts, for joint creativity between children and adults, which is important for creating harmonious relationships between children and parents.

My hypothesis: working with clay helps to develop solid and beautiful handwriting, develops perseverance, and develops attention.

In order to prove my hypothesis, I will use methods such as surveys, photography, and comparison.

Chapter 1.

History of ceramics.

Ceramics (Greek keramike - pottery art, from the word keramos - clay) are products that are produced by sintering clays and mixtures of clays with mineral supplements. Ceramics are common in everyday life (dishes, ceramic figurines, vases, paintings), they are used in construction and in art. The main types of ceramics can be distinguished: terracotta, majolica, earthenware, porcelain.

The history of ceramics is varied and very interesting. When man learned to process clay, he began to make dishes. All ceramic products are made from clay, but from different types of clay, with different additives, which is why they look so different. Since ancient times, people have been making ceramics, works of art, and dishes. Many remarkable discoveries have been made in the development of artistic ceramics. People experimented with types of clays and admixtures, with techniques of molding and firing, and decorating products. In an effort to obtain thin, beautiful, durable ceramics, manufacturers from different countries made similar inventions. In Ancient Greece, the art of making pottery from clay was called “ceramia.” Few ceramic objects of that time have survived to this day; today they can be seen in museums or purchased for quite a lot of money at specialized auctions. Ceramic production of that time was not too different from the modern one - first, the products were shaped by a potter on a potter's wheel, then the products were fired in a kiln, and then painted with paints. Somewhat later, ceramics became widely used in construction; ceramic brick became one of the first artificial building materials; according to historians, it is more than 5,000 years old. Later, ceramic tiles appeared, then tiles, and then plumbing fixtures. Medieval tiles, used for interior and exterior decoration of buildings, also belong to ceramics.

In the Middle Ages in Europe, ceramics were mainly used to make dishes for cooking and containers for storing food. The masters used the most different materials: white clay, white sand, crushed rock crystal. After painting and firing, such ceramic products were covered with a layer of glaze, after which the products were fired again. The entire history of ceramic products is full of interesting discoveries. The masters tried different techniques, different types of clay. A variety of colors, design techniques, and manufacturing methods were used in the production of ceramics. Today, many people collect ceramics as works of art and historical monuments artistic culture.

Ceramics in Russia.

Russian folk ceramic production is not limited to simple pottery. Ceramic crafts are beginning to take shape in Russia. These are Skopin, Gzhel ceramics, Dymkovo, Kargopol, Filimonov ceramic toys. All of the above-mentioned crafts have been formed since the 18th century. This was a time of developing trade, numerous fairs where craftsmen could sell their goods. It is also important that ceramic masters did not leave children unattended. Numerous ceramic toys are produced for them. The Russian ceramics industry has experienced both boom and bust times. The years of growth are the time of the emergence of various schools, methods of decorating the surface of ceramic products, as well as the modernization and improvement of the ceramic shard itself: from earthenware to porcelain.

Skopinsky pottery is located in the city of Skopin, Ryazan region. Simple pottery clay has long been used here to make all kinds of household utensils: jugs, jars, bowls. Considering its utilitarian purpose, master potters Special attention paid attention to the shape of the products, and to decorate it they used stamps and molded frills on the edges. They also made toys. In the second half of the 19th century. An unusual character of things began to take shape, in which Skopin’s product differed from the products of other pottery centers. The difference was that the vessels were made hand sculpted, like a kind of sculpture. The container remained as the primary basis of the jug, but was supplemented with molded figures of birds, fish, and semi-fantastic animals. In some types of products, the figure of a bird or animal was transformed into a jug or a type of vessel, in which several figures were intricately intertwined with molded, scratched or stamped ornaments. The vessels were a fantastic structure that caused surprise.

Among the crafts involved in the manufacture of clay toys, which are actively developing today, one of the important places is occupied by Dymkovo. Its name is associated with the village of Dymkovo, which is located near the city of Vyatka. Dymkovo toy, similar in shape to products from other crafts, has characteristic differences in painting. Molded from red clay, after firing it was painted with chalk diluted in milk; now water-emulsion white paint serves as a replacement. Painting is done on a white background with tempera paints. The ringing tones of red, yellow, green, and blue create a bright, cheerful palette of paintings.

The original traditional craft of making clay toys is preserved in the city of Kargopol, Arkhangelsk region. The craft was started by craftsmen who lived in the village of Grinevo, Kargopol district. Therefore, the themes of the toy are firmly entrenched in the images of fairy-tale characters, villagers engaged in everyday work, scenes of folk festivals with riding in troikas or in boats on the river.

Among the handicrafts of the Tula region it stands out for its originality. clay toy village of Filimonovo. Its artistic differences are manifested both in form and in painting.

The peculiarity of the local clay forces craftswomen to slightly elongate any figure when sculpting. This is especially noticeable in the sculpting of horses and cows, which have very long necks. The human figures appear slender and quite graceful, despite the overall heaviness of the ceramic sculpting. Taking these features into account, the craftswomen seem to adjust the proportions of the figures, painting them mainly with stripes of red, yellow, and green colors. Decorative elements are complemented by schematically depicted rosettes reminiscent of both the sun and a flower, as well as triangles, circles and dots. The entire range of paintings in red-pink, green, yellow colors, playing effectively against the background of the whitewashed surface of the toy, gives it an extraordinary sonority and festivity.

But the most elegant ceramic material after all, it is porcelain. The birthplace of porcelain is China. The secret of making porcelain mass was kept for a very long time. But already by the beginning of the 18th century. Western European masters began to recreate porcelain in their homeland. Gzhel crafts are also interesting from the point of view of the development of ornamental motifs and plots that were placed on the surface of the products - from the smallest, sometimes geometric, to complex spatial plot paintings. And all this with changing colors. Early Gzhel products resemble objects from peasant life - just as bright and eloquent. Gzhel clays have long been considered the best in Russia. The first majolica in Russia, the first semi-faience and, of course, porcelain were made from them.

Chapter 2.

2.1. Study of clay properties.

Let's study some properties of clay. To do this, we will conduct several experiments (see Appendix).

First experience. Flammability and odor testing.

Let's try to smell the clay. Ready-to-use clay has no specific odor. Now let's try to set fire to the clay over a candle fire. After holding a piece of clay over the fire for some time, we see that the clay does not burn, but only becomes harder. This property is used by potters when firing ceramic dishes. After firing, the clay becomes hard and waterproof.

Second experience. Solubility in water.

Add clay to a glass of water and mix the contents well. After some time, the clay settles. So we found out that clay does not dissolve in water. However, if the clay powder is diluted in a certain proportion with water, the mass necessary for modeling will be obtained. This is due to such a property of clay as viscosity.

Thus, we see that clay becomes soft and pliable when a small amount of water is added to it. This is how clay for modeling is obtained.

To confirm my hypothesis, I conducted a survey in our group (see Appendix). It turned out that most children like to sculpt with clay more than to draw (74%). 68% of children are better at making clay crafts than drawings. Most of the kids in our group started writing at the age of 5.5. The answer to the question of how your handwriting has changed pleased me. Almost all the children (89%) have improved their handwriting, in their opinion.

Answering the last question, many explained their answer as follows: “Before, it was hard for me to sit for an hour, I wanted to run. But now I don’t even notice that an hour has passed.” From this we can conclude that modeling exercises develop perseverance.

We also played this game in our group. Various objects were laid out on the table. It was necessary to remember their exact location and reproduce it after 1 minute. Most of the guys (90%) quickly completed this task. These were mostly children who have been attending the Obedient Clay association for the second year now.

We also played an attentive game: we asked one student to come to the board, we remembered what he was wearing. Then, with their eyes closed, they described it in detail. In this game the most detailed description given by those guys who have been sculpting for several years now.

Analyzing the results of the games, we can conclude that working with clay develops not only perseverance, but also attention.

Using the photography method, I compared my handwriting in 1st grade, when I first started sculpting, and my handwriting today. You can see a significant difference in the handwriting, it has become more confident and clear (see Appendix).

2.2. My job.

I started studying at the children’s (youth) art house in the “Obedient Clay” association. Our teacher, Gulnara Amirovna, told us in detail about how clay is mined in quarries and how it is prepared for further use. In our work we use brown clay. Now we don’t need to specially prepare the clay for work: sifting, grinding, etc. We use ready-made clay.

Sculpting is easier than drawing. To draw a ball, you need to be able to convey tone, light and shade, highlights, relief, reflex. Making a ball is much easier. If we compare drawing and modeling of more complex objects, for example, the head of a bear or a fox, the advantage of modeling in terms of ease of depiction is even more obvious, since to transform a sculpted ball into the head of a bear or fox, it is enough to pull off four identical protuberances at equal intervals - blunt ones, so that get the bears head sharp so that the fox head comes out. By rotating each of these bulge balls, you can imagine different animal faces.

After sculpting complex three-dimensional forms of animals and beasts, you can confidently and even from memory depict them on a plane.

You can sculpt in various ways: rolling, pulling, sticking, stamping, pressing.

We begin our work by choosing a model for modeling. In our office there are many beautiful figurines made by the hands of students and our teacher. Having decided on the model for modeling, we take the required amount of clay and begin to actually sculpt. In our work we use different modeling methods: “cord”, “spiral”, “ball”, “bell” and others. After the model is molded, we leave it to dry.

After 2 days, the molded model is ready for painting, before which we sand our product with fine sandpaper. After sanding, we prime the model with white paint so that when painting the clay does not show through and does not tint the selected color. After such preparation, we paint our works with gouache. The painted works are dried for a couple of days, then they are coated with colorless varnish to give the craft a finished look.

Conclusion.

In the process of writing my work, I learned a lot about clay. As it turned out, many things we use in everyday life are made from clay. Ceramic products were common in ancient times, and now they have not lost their relevance. There are many enterprises in the world that produce ceramic and porcelain products. Russia is famous for its clay crafts: Dymkovo, Kargopol, Filimonov, Gzhel; China is famous for its fine porcelain, Germany for the Meissen porcelain factory, which produces amazingly beautiful figurines and sets.

Clay serves as a good material for making toys and crafts in labor lessons and extracurricular activities.

Observing myself, I found out that classes in the “Obedient Clay” circle helped me acquire such qualities as concentration, perseverance, patience, and attentiveness.

Clay makes hands skillful and obedient, imagination - developed. It simultaneously develops the skills of a sculptor (good command of the material, thinking in plastic language), a graphic artist (successfully choosing a decorative design, its scale and placement), a painter (correctly determining the color scheme of a work, drawing). This is how you become involved in art and study its secrets. And most importantly, clay gives a feeling of joy from the possibility of self-expression, cultivates artistic taste, instills faith in one’s abilities and pleasure in creating beauty. At the same time, in our work we become aware of the various properties of clay, get acquainted with the volumetric shape, structure and proportions of objects.

Thus, summarizing the above, we can conclude that the process of working with natural material clay is a powerful source of comprehensive personality development, which confirms my hypothesis.

Thesaurus

CLAY, clay, many no, female One of the most common secondary rocks in nature, used. for all kinds of pottery, construction and sculpture works 1.

CERAMICS, -i, female 1. collected Products made from baked clay, clay mixtures. Art class 2. Pottery art. Do ceramics. | adj. ceramic, -th, -oe 2.

CALLIGRAPHY, and, plural no, w. [Greek calligraphy letters beautiful writing].The art of writing in clear and beautiful handwriting 3.

PORCELAIN, porcelain, male (Modern Greek pharphouri from Arabic). 1. units only An artificially produced mineral mass from the best varieties of white clay with special impurities, used for various products 4.

Literature

Molotova V.N. History of pottery art. History of ceramic crafts in Russia // Decorative and applied art. – M., 2007. – P. 127 – 132.

Internet resources.

Arakcheev Yu.S., Khailov L.M. Miracles made of clay. M., 2000. – p. 72.

Durasov G.P. Kargopol clay toy. L., 1986. – p. 71.

Krutenko N. “Stories about ceramics”, K. - 2000

Appendix 1. Samples of Russian ceramics.

Skopino ceramics

Dymkovo ceramics

Kargopol ceramics

Filimonovskaya ceramics

Gzhel ceramics

Appendix 2 “Experiments with clay”.

Testing clay for smell

Testing clay for flammability

Testing clay for solubility in water

Appendix 3. Questionnaire.

Do you like to sculpt with clay?

What is easier: drawing or sculpting from clay?

When you draw, does the pencil always “listen” to you?

Are you always good at depicting animals and plants with pencil and paint?

Are you good at depicting animals and people using sculpting?

How old were you when you learned to write words and sentences?

Did you like your handwriting in 1st grade (which was before, before clay modeling)?

How long have you been sculpting with clay?

Why do you like to sculpt with clay?

What do you like to sculpt more: figures, animals, compositions (panels)?

What sculpting methods do you use when working?

Do your fingers “listen” to you when sculpting?

Has your handwriting changed since you started modeling with clay?

what do you think?

What do your parents think?

What does your teacher think?

Have you become more attentive to the design of your school (written) work (neatness, cleanliness, care in design)?

Have you become more attentive to the shape, color, figures of the objects around you, people, animals when sculpting?

Your lesson lasts a full hour! Don't you get tired of sitting in one place for an entire HOUR, sculpting, painting? Don't you get tired without active movement?

Selected survey results

Appendix 4. “Handwriting samples”

Handwriting in 1st grade

Handwriting in 2nd grade

Appendix 5 “My works”

Abstracts

TO research work"Clay in applied art."

Completed by: Shtepa Anastasia, student of class 2 B, MBOU Secondary School No. 2, Tuymazy

Head: Liliya Rasimovna Fakhretdinova, primary school teacher, Municipal Budgetary Educational Institution Secondary School No. 2, Tuymazy

When I was just a little girl, I watched my mother doing needlework: sewing, knitting, embroidering, making something out of paper, sculpting. I was also interested in doing such handicrafts. While attending kindergarten and developmental classes at the Sema children's center, I learned that you can sculpt not only from plasticine, but from clay. I liked clay as a material for crafts and wanted to learn more about clay, about the history of this type of applied art.

Subject relevant, because clay serves as a good material for making toys and crafts, for joint creativity between children and adults, which is important for creating harmonious relationships between children and parents.

Target: get acquainted with clay as a material for applied art, study its properties and influence on the formation of creative abilities.

Tasks:

Study the literature regarding the use of clay in applied art;

Study literature about the history of ceramics and the development of ceramics in Russia;

Conduct a series of experiments to study the properties of clay.

Object of study is the use of clay in applied art.

Subject of study: clay.

Hypothesis: working with clay helps to develop solid and beautiful handwriting, develops perseverance, and develops attention.

Research methods: survey, photographing, comparison.

Research base: DDiUT, school library.

Significance of the work: this project intended for use in preparation for extracurricular activities and labor lessons.

1 Ushakov’s Explanatory Dictionary

2 Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary

3 Explanatory dictionary of foreign words

4 Ushakov’s Explanatory Dictionary

Study and description of outcrops

Nudity - this is the outcrop of bedrock on the surface. Outcrops can be natural and artificial, terrestrial and underwater, and they are the main object of observation for the geologist. It is outcrops that in most cases make it possible to make discoveries, to learn the nature and history of long-past and ongoing processes on Earth, to test ideas and hypotheses, etc. Therefore, it is important to correctly read and describe the outcrop. And the possibilities of competent reading (research) of an outcrop are determined by knowledge and observation. Sometimes it happens that with good observation, a noted “trifle” can later help solve something important.

The position of the exposure must be accurately referenced. Pegging outcrop is called a set of operations to determine its position on a topographic basis using some kind of benchmarks (eye reference) or using geodetic instruments or a GPS navigator (instrumental reference).

Outcrop study is a detailed examination of the outcrop and clarification of all the characteristics of the composition and structure. The description of the outcrop includes the connection of the outcrop to the area (geographical and topographical), the required detailed description of the composition and structure, sketching and photography, as well as the selection of samples and samples. During a general inspection of the outcrop, it is established that this is indeed a radical outcrop, and not a block or landslide, etc. and its dimensions, the relationship of the constituent rocks and their occurrence and composition is clarified, and the locations for sampling and testing are outlined. After this, if necessary, the outcrop is photographed and/or sketched. Both the description and sketches must be as complete and objective as possible and correspond to the unwritten mottos of geologists - " what I don't see - I don't write", "not recorded or sketched - not observed". Only what is recorded and sketched in the field at the observation site has the value of a document. Documentation of information is kept in a field diary.

Description of outcrops carried out depending on the composition and structure of formations observed in the outcrop. Methods for describing Quaternary, sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous rocks, as well as simple and complex outcrops, can vary quite significantly, and are discussed further in the text. In general, when describing outcrops, the following scheme can be used:

1 - outcrop number;

2 - location or reference of outcrop;

3 - general dimensions - height and length of the outcrop;

4 - type of outcrop;

5 - characteristics of rocks indicating their material composition, structural and textural features, thickness, etc.;

6 - conditions of occurrence of rocks and their relationships;

7 - sketches and photography, if necessary;

8 - sampling and sampling.

When describing rocks, regardless of their genesis, it is advisable to adhere to the following sequence:

1 - name of the breed;

2 - color (color) of the breed;

3 - mineral composition of the rock;

4 - rock structure;

5 - rock texture;

6 - strength (hardness) of the rock;

7 - characteristics of separation and fracturing;

8 - inclusions and isolations;

9 - shape of geological bodies and their sizes;

10 - rock variability along strike and dip;

11 - conditions for the formation and transformation of the breed.

Breed name usually determined either by the mineralogical composition and structural and textural features (conglomerate, quartz sandstone, biotite-amphibole gneiss, etc.). The name of sedimentary rocks can be determined by fossil organic remains (brachiopod limestone), and in igneous rocks - by petrochemical composition (mafic rocks, ultramafic rocks). The field definition of the breed is clarified during the office period.

Description rock colors should be of the same type - indicating the main color, its intensity, saturation and shades, as well as the degree of color uniformity. For example, light brown, variegated with alternating thin stripes of light green and gray. If possible, try to explain what causes the color of the rocks.

Mineral composition rocks are described macroscopically, and in the office period they are clarified using thin sections under a microscope. It is necessary to distinguish between mono-, bi- and polymineral varieties of rocks, to determine the ratio and quantitative content of minerals, as well as their size, to identify major (rock-forming) and secondary or accessory (under a microscope) minerals. And if possible, with the help of a magnifying glass, diagnostic signs of minerals are given.

Rock structure determined macroscopically and clarified during the office period using thin sections under a microscope. It is established based on the following characteristics:

1 - degree of crystallinity or granularity of the rock (cryptocrystalline, incompletely crystalline, fully crystalline, coarse-grained);

2 - sizes of minerals or grains (fine-grained; fine-, medium-, coarse-crystalline, etc.);

3 - forms of minerals and their relationships or idiomorphism (these structures in most cases can only be determined under a microscope).

It must be remembered that the name structures is also determined by the conditions of rock formation. Crystalline structures are characteristic of igneous rocks, crystalloblastic - for metamorphic rocks, crystalline-granular and granular - for chemogenic and clastic sedimentary deposits. Moreover, the structure can indicate not only the genesis (primary nature) of rocks, but also the specific paleofacies environment of their formation.

Rock texture determined by the spatial distribution and arrangement of different mineral components in it (from homogeneous to spotted, banded, rhythmically banded, lenticular-banded, etc.). When describing texture, it is necessary to determine what causes these inhomogeneities (color, mineral composition, material composition, structure, etc.). In most cases, in rocks with heterogeneous textures, these heterogeneities (strips, spots, puffs, lenses, veinlets, schlieren, tonsils, concretions, inclusions, xenoliths, segregations, etc.) have a combined nature of differences - structural-material, mineral-color etc. The name of the textures reflects the features of the spatial distribution of minerals or their communities (spotted, banded, layered, amygdaloidal, spherical, etc.) and their degree of order or orientation. Plane- or linear-parallel, schistose, gneiss-like and linear-banded structures are more common in metamorphic rocks. According to the degree of “packing” of minerals in rocks, dense or compact and porous (slag, druse) textures are distinguished.

Strength or hardness of the rock in field conditions it is determined rather conditionally. Sediments (sands, sandy loams, clays, etc.) are all loose and have a lower strength. Rocks can be divided into three groups: 1 - weak strength, when broken by hand; 2 - medium strength, when easily broken with a hammer; 3 - high strength, when it is difficult to break with a hammer.

Separateness and fissuring in field conditions they can be easily identified, but it is quite difficult to distinguish one from the other, because their genetic nature is often close. Separation occurs in rocks during the process of weathering or artificial splitting, and fracturing can have a tectonic, gravitational nature, and also occur during weathering. Based on the morphology of the separated rock blocks, the most common types of separation can be distinguished: 1 - small-, medium- and large-blocky, angular; 2 - mattress-shaped with rounded edges; 3 - layered, slab and thin slab; 4 - cubic, rhomboidal and parallelepipedal; 5 - columnar or prismatic; 6 - shell, spherical, cushion.

When describing the separation and fracturing, it is necessary to take measurements of the elements of occurrence of the fracture surfaces (azimuth of strike, dip and dip angle), give quantification cracks and block sizes.

Inclusions and isolations , if they occur in rocks, they must be studied and described. Inclusions are most often found in sedimentary rocks (nodules, secretions, etc.) and igneous rocks (xenoliths, dendrites, etc.). Inclusions, the nature of which cannot always be determined, are described as isolations. They are more often found in metamorphic rocks (restites, relics, etc.). When describing inclusions and isolations, it is recommended to indicate the following characteristics: shape, material composition, primary or secondary occurrence, quantitative content and size, nature of contact with the host rocks.

Shape of geological bodies often makes genetic sense, if the composition of the rocks composing them is taken into account. Layered form in sedimentary rocks (layers, layers, interlayers), stratified and plate-like form in intrusive rocks (sills, dikes, veins), plate-like form in effusive rocks (covers), dome-shaped form in intrusive rocks (batholiths, stocks) and sedimentary-chemogenic rocks (salt domes), lens-shaped in intrusive rocks (lenses, veins), etc. These are all simple forms of geological bodies whose morphology can be determined in one plane (in the outcrop or outcrops). Most often, geological bodies have forms of complex configuration with the presence of constrictions, swellings, pockets, apophysis, etc. The true shape of such bodies can only be judged from the results of observations at many outcrops, when tracing the boundaries of the body along strike and dip, i.e. in three dimensions, and sometimes using data from aerial photography and borehole drilling. When describing the shape of a geological body, it is necessary to determine their apparent and true thickness (for strata bodies), the dimensions of the outcrop area and the elements of occurrence of intrusive bodies and their elements (apophysis, branches, etc.), as well as the dimensions and position in the host geological rocks bodies with boundary forms (lenses, veins, isometric small arrays, etc.).

Breed variability Laterally and vertically it can be of primary and secondary origin, and is characterized by variability of properties - structure, texture, etc. Primary variability is characteristic, for example, of igneous rocks - the enlargement of structures from selvages to the center of intrusive vein bodies. Secondary variability can be caused by superimposed processes - metamorphic, metasomatic, hydrothermal, tectonic, etc. Taking this into account, it is necessary to give, if possible, a more complete description of variability and its genetic nature.

Conditions of formation and transformation breeds are determined by a set of characteristics obtained as a result of the study and description of the above characteristics. As noted earlier, almost all characteristics carry a genetic meaning - the shape of bodies, the conditions of occurrence, the material composition and structural and textural features. In addition to elucidating the genetic type of rocks (sedimentary, igneous, metamorphic, etc.), one must try to recreate the specific paleofacies or physicochemical conditions for the formation and transformation of the rock. Most often, this cannot be done without additional petrochemical, petrological and other research methods. This especially applies to determining the primary nature and thermodynamic parameters of metamorphic (gneisses, amphibolites, etc.) and intensively transformed rocks of any origin.

At the beginning of the “Description of Outcrops” section, it was noted that the principles for describing rocks of different genesis have their own specifics and can vary significantly, so at least the main features should be given.

When studying and describing sediments (Quaternary deposits) it is necessary to take into account that they (for example, within the Murmansk region) are distributed almost everywhere, that they are all covered with a soil-vegetative layer and are represented by a fairly wide genetic spectrum of breeds. These are colluvial, colluvial, eluvial, lacustrine, river, glacial (glacial), fluvioglacial (fluvioglacial), marine, aeolian and other deposits. It is best to study sediments in natural outcrops (on the slopes of ravines, in river valleys, along the coasts of lakes and seas, etc.), in artificial ones (in burrows, ditches and pits) and from well cores. The greatest information about the structure, composition and facies transitions can be obtained only in natural outcrops.

When describing precipitation, in addition to studying the above parameters, it is recommended to try to determine:

1 - their relationship with more ancient breeds;

2 - geomorphological location, i.e. association with certain forms or elements of relief (this will help determine their genetic type and relative age);

3 - engineering-geological properties of rocks (plasticity, density, moisture capacity, etc.).

Additional and very important criteria for the genetic and facial identity of sediments can be the results of spore-pollen and paleocarpological analysis, but they require special professional training.

When studying and describing sedimentary rocks special attention should be paid to the specific features of these rocks - the type of layering, the nature of the bedding surface, the possible presence of organic residues, the degree of sorting and roundness of the clastic material, the nature and composition of cement and the presence of impurities.

Layering is characterized by a complex of characteristics:

1 - type (plane-parallel, lenticular, oblique, wavy);

2 - the nature of the boundaries of the interlayers (clear, fuzzy, wavy, etc.);

3 - form of manifestation (by grain size, color, lithology and thickness of interlayers, etc.).

It is necessary to study layering, since it indicates the genesis of rocks. For example, parallel layering is formed in a calm environment, oblique layering - in conditions of water or air movement, diagonal layering - indicates its formation in the mouth areas of water flows.

Studying the general nature of the relief of bedding surfaces also helps to clarify the origin and conditions of occurrence of strata. For example, prints of traces of living creatures, plant leaves, signs of wave and wind ripples, wave-breaking signs, beach festoons, prints of raindrops, hieroglyphs, etc. can be found on them.

Sedimentary rocks may contain remains of ancient organisms (fossils) in the form of skeletal formations, imprints, traces of vital activity, etc. Unfortunately, only microfossils (microscopic remains) and stromatolites (carbonate structures - bioherms), so it is not possible to conduct a case study with rocks containing relicts of fauna and flora. It is important to remember one thing - when these remains are discovered, it is necessary to carefully document the exposure, location, degree of preservation, quantity, orientation, association with rock type, nature of fossilization and systematic affiliation of relict organisms, and their taxonomic definition. The most complete answer to the latter can be given by professionals or in a special laboratory. To do this, it is necessary, with maximum care, safety and representativeness, to select samples with relics of fauna or flora and carry out appropriate documentation. And one more rule - you cannot mix fossils from different layers! In addition, you should know that the description of discovered organic structures in sedimentary rocks has its own specifics. It is necessary to indicate the shape, size, internal structure, type and spatiotemporal relationship with the host rocks (i.e., conditions of occurrence and time of formation), since these features may indicate the facies conditions of formation of sedimentary rocks.

The degree of sorting of fragmentary material is characterized by the percentage of fragments of minimum and maximum sizes and by the difference between these values. When studying the degree of roundness, it is important to pay attention to the possible presence of streaks and grooves on pebbles and boulders. In most cases, they indicate the influence of the glacier on them. When characterizing the cement of sedimentary clastic rocks, one should determine its composition (clayey, carbonate, siliceous, ferruginous, etc.), color, uniformity, porosity, hardness, type (basal, porous, contact), as well as the ratio of the cementing mass and clastic material . For clays, loams and other clayey rocks, it is necessary to determine the qualitative characteristics of the degree of plasticity and the presence of sand and lime impurities. It is determined by the ability of rock soaked in water to be rolled into a tube and by the degree of cracking after drying (poor plasticity cracks). The content of lime impurities in cement is determined by reaction with hydrochloric acid, and sand impurities by rubbing between fingers. Clay rocks, like carbonate rocks, may contain various impurities. The presence of bituminous impurities is determined by the organoleptic method by the sharp garlic smell when hitting the rock with a hammer. Silicified rocks are harder. Dolomitized rocks are determined by the absence or weak reaction with hydrochloric acid, ferruginous, glauconite-containing rocks by color, etc. Pure limestones are white or gray-white in color and react violently with hydrochloric acid.

When studying and describing igneous (intrusive and effusive) rocks the main distinguishing feature is the need to study their contacts with the host sediments (rocks). It is imperative to establish the structural form of the contact (intrusive, tectonic, transgressive, etc.) and its position in space, the occurrence elements and structure of the contact surfaces, the orientation of the structural and textural elements on both sides of the contact (in the exo- and endocontact zone), as well as changes in rocks in the exo- and endocontact zone. In the exocontact zone, hornfelsing, silicification, and the appearance of skarns and other products of thermal or metasomatic metamorphism are possible. In the endocontact zone there may be differences in crystallinity, mineral composition and substance from distant parts of the massif, fracturing (healed and unhealed), the presence of xenoliths, schlierens, inclusions, etc. In addition, more attention should be paid to the characteristics of color, degree of crystallinity, content of quartz, feldspar, olivine, etc. Important features are the shape of the individual and the conditions of occurrence, as well as the nature of secondary changes in the rock. In addition, in intrusive rocks it is necessary to determine the nature of heterogeneity, the position of primary linear and planar elements, and in effusive rocks - zoning, amygdaloidal textures and other signs indicating the spatial position of the rocks, the direction of lava flow, the distance from the center of the eruption, etc. .

Study and description of metamorphic rocks carried out generally in accordance with the principles stated above, which are common to all types of breeds. But at the same time, it is necessary to take into account the distinctive features of the mineral composition, structures, textures and other characteristics that may be of a polygenic nature. In areas of development of metamorphic formations, the study of individual outcrops requires knowledge of a number of specific features of metamorphic rocks and the ability to observe and correctly interpret them. Unlike normal sedimentary rocks not affected by metamorphism, the original nature and conditions of formation of schistose and banded metamorphic rocks are in most cases unclear. In deeply metamorphosed rocks with banded and foliated textures, foliation and banding may not always reflect the primary layering of normal sediments.

However, in some areas or outcrops, relics of primary textures are preserved (rhythmic bedding, finely parallel banding, cross bedding, complex bedding, ripple marks, wave-cut marks, clastic rock textures, desiccation cracks, weathering crusts, volcanic rock textures, etc.). Along with this, in the process of metamorphism of rocks, newly formed banding and other textures can arise - segregation, metasomatic and migmatitic banding and banding of metamorphic differentiation (even in primarily homogeneous rocks), textures similar to amygdaloidal, clastic, pillow, etc. Also, during metamorphism and ultrametamorphism in rocks, the following are formed:

a) crystallization foliation and cleavage of different genetic types (flow, slip, fault, bedding, etc.);

b) banding (cleavage, segregation, metamorphic differentiation, viscous tectonic flows, etc.);

c) linear textures with mineral, aggregate, rock-lenticular and other linearity;

d) boudinage structures;

e) migmatites different types(agmatites resembling appearance eruptive breccia, dictonites or branched migmatites, arterites or layered, “ptigmatites” and shadow banded and spotted migmatites);

f) secondary isolations - veinlets and lenses of quartz, granite and other compositions, forms of growth crystals (regular, skeletal, case, xenomorphic, pseudomorphic, aggregate, dendritic, etc.).

Metamorphic processes lead not only to changes in the primary material (mineral) composition, but also in the petrochemical one.

When studying complexes of metamorphic rocks, in addition to the problem of primary origin, there are problems of compiling partial sections and columns and “stratigraphic” columns, because in outcrop rocks it is rarely possible to determine the base and roof (“top-bottom”) and, in addition, folded and faulty deformations are incredibly complicate the structure.

Realizing the complexity of documenting outcrops composed of metamorphic rocks, there is no need to despair. As in other cases, a thorough study and recording in a diary (entries, sketches, photographs) of all components (signs) is necessary here and, if possible, one should try to determine their primary or secondary nature. Very often, even the use of complex research (petrochemical, petrological, etc.) does not allow answering this question.

When carrying out routing or mapping work on each outcrop, systematic observations of small structural forms - cleavage, linearity, small folds and folds of different orders and genetic types (folds of bending, dragging, flow, etc.) are also necessary. Observations include a description of the shapes, sizes of folds and their elements, measurements of the occurrence of structural elements of folds (wings, axial surfaces, hinges, foliation, banding, linearity, etc.).

Study and description of the conditions of occurrence and relationships of rocks

The conditions of occurrence of rocks are characterized by several features - the form of occurrence of geological bodies, elements of bedding surfaces, contact planes, structural elements of folds, tectonic disturbances and their elements.

Form of occurrence rocks can be determined both in a single outcrop and in a series of outcrops, or only on the basis of data over a large area and with the use of a mass of additional features.

The form of occurrence of intrusive igneous bodies is determined by their relationship with the host rocks. It can be consonant (concordant) or secant (discordant). Sills, phacolites and lopoliths most often have conformable contacts. And they lie obliquely or folded in accordance with the position of their host sedimentary, volcanic or metamorphic rocks. The nature of the occurrence of cutting intrusions depends on the location of the cavity or crack into which the magmatic melt was introduced.

The form of occurrence of layered sedimentary, volcanic and metamorphic formations can be primary (undisturbed) and secondary (disturbed), horizontal, inclined or folded. The horizontal position of formations can be observed in normal, overturned, and in packages of isoclinal folds with horizontal axial surfaces. With normal horizontal occurrence in areas with rough terrain, the most ancient layers lie in the lower parts of the relief, and the younger ones - in the higher parts. With an inclined normal bedding, three options for their position are possible:

1 - younger layers are located up the slope if the bedding planes fall in the direction opposite to the slope;

2 - older rocks lie up the slope if the surface of the slope and the bedding surfaces fall in the same direction and the fall of the rocks is steeper than the dip of the slope;

3 - if the slope and bedding surfaces coincide, then one level of rocks will extend up the slope.

To identify the true bedding sequence important acquires the definition of “bottom-top”, i.e. base and roof layers. If the primary textural features of the rocks are well preserved, this can be done by studying:

a) textural features of bedding surfaces (in rocks of sedimentary origin, identification of signs of ripples, hieroglyphs, drying cracks and other signs on them, and in pyroclastic deposits - dents from bombs and large debris);

b) gradational layering - i.e. the distribution of clastic material according to the degree of sorting in layered series of aquatic (in water conditions) origin;

c) the behavior of cross-bedding, which, during normal occurrence, is smoothly joined at the base of the layer and sharply wedges out at its roof;

d) the thickness of the hardening zones of frozen lavas (at the top it is several times greater than at the base) and the presence of amygdala (amygdaloid) textures, which are concentrated mainly at the top of the flow;

e) complexes of fossil organic remains.

The description of the rock occurrence conditions must be accompanied by measurements or determinations of the true thickness of the formation bodies.

With a constant true thickness of the layer, its width in outcrops depends on the angle of inclination of the layer and the shape of the earth's surface (the nature of the relief). These dependencies are limited to six options, and the procedure for calculating the true thickness is somewhat more complicated than with horizontal layers. All necessary formulas are given in the first chapter. On the map, the thickness of the layer can be determined using the method of laying on stratoisohypsum.

In outcrops and areas composed of folded formations, after characterizing the rocks, it is necessary to describe the folds and determine: the morphological type of folds; height and width (wingspan) of folds; the presence of complicating additional folding; the structure of the lock and wings of the folds, indicating the angles and azimuths of their inclination; direction and angle of immersion or ascent of the hinge; position and spatial orientation of the axial plane; cleavage and its relationship with the structural elements of folds; foliation, linearity and striation.

In cases where it is not possible to make direct measurements of the spatial position of the hinge (SH), axial surface (AP) or axial surface trace (STP) and linearity (L), they can be determined by plotting additional measurements on the Wulff, Lambert or Schmidt grid. To determine the position of the hinge, it is necessary to take measurements of the position of the wings of the folds, to determine the OP of the fold - measurements of the traces of the axial surface (SOP) in two projections, to determine the position of linearity - measurements of foliation (SC) and banding (FS) and the angle of incidence of linearity (L), etc. d.

Tectonic disturbances are established based on geological and geomorphological features on the ground and based on aerial photographs. Of the geological signs, the most reliable are the following:

1 - mirrors and slip grooves on failure surfaces in rocks;

2 - zones of tectonic breccias, cataclasis, mylonitization, intense fracturing and shearing;

3 - closed cracks made with vein material;

4 - visible displacements of parts of layers, veins, dikes, layering or other structural and textural elements;

5 - discrepancy in the structure of adjacent outcrop areas or neighboring outcrops located at the same hypsometric level in areas with a simple structure,

6 - presence of large blocks of allochthonous rocks;

7 - loss of individual intervals of sections or their repetition (in areas with simple horizontal or monoclinal occurrence of rocks);

8 - sharp break (end) of structures along the dip and strike.

Tectonic disturbances to one degree or another are manifested in relief forms and therefore are well deciphered on aerial photographs of the area. The presence of disturbances can be indicated by linearly oriented depressions or hills, scarps (fault ledges), facets (triangular faces of spurs), etc. But it must be remembered that before linking the occurrence of a landform with the manifestation of disturbances, you need to check all possible other ways of its origin, so how these signs can have convergence (multiple meanings). When documenting tectonic disturbances, it is necessary to indicate:

1 - elements of the rupture plane;

2 - presence of feathering cracks, ruptures and their spatial position;

4 - type of disturbance (fault, reverse fault, shift, thrust, extension, etc.);

5 - structure of the fault zone and its bounding surfaces (shape, thickness, behavior along strike and dip, orientation of strokes and slip surfaces, nature of execution - breccias, cataclasites, mylonites, ultrablastomylonites, etc.);

6 - relationship with layering, schistosity and fracturing of rocks, with folds, as well as with discontinuities in different directions;

7 - composition of rocks and conditions of their occurrence on the wings;

8 - connections (possible) with the corresponding forms of terrain.

Elements of bedding surfaces, contact planes, structural elements of layered strata, folded structures and fault tectonic faults are measured using a mountain compass and recorded in a field diary in abbreviated form (for example, Az. Fall. Sc315°45°). When the plane is in a vertical position the azimuth of its strike is recorded -az. simple 270°or - az. simple 27090°.

Where possible, the occurrence elements are plotted on a map of the actual material, on a topographic map or on an aerial photograph.

Exploring Relationships between geological bodies implies observations of combinations of distinguishable types of rocks, the conditions of their occurrence in outcrops and areas, and the spatiotemporal location relative to each other (what is higher and what is lower; concordant or discordant; what cuts what; etc.). Ultimately, this leads to the clarification of the relative (historical) sequence of formation and transformation of geological formations in the study area.

When studying the relationships between geological bodies, it is necessary to focus on identifying disagreements, which is far from easy. Disconformities determine not only the spatial, but also the historical relationship of different-aged, predominantly layered rocks. They can arise both with and without the participation of tectonic processes (movements). If disagreement is found, you should try to give the following characteristics:

1 - features by which the unconformity was revealed (angular overlap, contrasting transition, the presence of conglomerates, a sharp difference in the degree of metamorphism, etc.);

2 - structure of the unconformity surface (configuration, presence of pockets or protrusions, weathering crusts, ferruginous zones, etc.);

3 - composition and structure of rocks lying above and below the unconformity surface, as well as structural elements of their occurrence;

4 - type of unconformity (primary, secondary, stratigraphic, structural, parallel, enclosing, adjacent, angular, lithological, sedimentation, tectonic, local, regional, azimuthal or cartographic, etc.).

The unconformities record a hiatus in sedimentation. Disagreement is relatively easy to establish:

1 - if during the break there was a structural restructuring, then subsequent (young) complexes overlie with angular unconformity;

2 - when sedimentary or effusive strata overlap the eroded surface of older crystalline (intrusive or metamorphic) rocks, and then one can see buried relief, pockets composed of weathering crusts or disintegrated rocks;

3 - when lava covers overlap sedimentary, metamorphic or intrusive rocks.

It is very difficult to identify unconformities between layers of similar lithological composition and when they are parallel or concordantly adjacent.

Description of artificial outcrops .

In areas with insufficient exposure, in order to obtain additional information and factual data, artificial exposures are used - above-ground (pits, ditches, quarries, road cuts, etc.) and underground (adits, drifts, etc.) mine workings and boreholes. The rules for documenting artificial outcrops are similar to the documentation of natural outcrops. In ditches and pits, the walls and bottom of the excavation are documented, in the quarry - the walls and, if possible, level sections, in the underground workings - the walls, bottom, roof and face, and in the wells - the core.

A borehole is a cylindrical excavation with a small cross-section. It has a mouth, a trunk and a bottom. The lateral surface of the trunk is the walls of the trunk (well). Types of drilling: manual (percussion, impact-rotary and rotary) and mechanical (rotary shot, carbide and diamond). In most cases, drilling is carried out with core selection. Core is rocks lifted from a well with a drill spoon, coil or bailer when drilling in soft and loose rocks, or with a drill pipe during mechanical drilling. The main disadvantage of core material as a source of information is mixing during drilling, incomplete recoverability due to abrasion and washout, difficulties in core orientation, etc. The core is described at intervals with recording of all observed features, after which a section along the well is compiled. If it is possible to carry out well logging (geophysical research methods), the section can be refined.

Observations of modern (and recent past) geological processes.

When geological mapping it is necessary to general view record the results of geological processes of the ancient, recent past and modern natural manifestations, as well as traces of manifestations caused by human activity. These are forms of relief and formation caused by:

1 - life activity of human civilization;

2 - geological activity of rivers, streams and temporary streams (watercourses) and the sea (shapes of valleys, terraces, rapids, waterfalls, alluvial cones, alluvium, beaches, etc.);

3 - gravitational movement of sediments and disintegrated formations, as well as solifluction (diluvium, colluvium, landslides, etc.);

4 - some elements of aeolian accumulation;

5 - modern chemical and physical weathering (soils, eluvium, weathering crust, deluvium, desquamation products, etc.);

6 - neotectonic movements (isostasy, earthquakes, etc.);

7 - different types and stages of life of lakes and swamps;

8 - glacier activity at the stages of exaration (gouging out), transport and accumulation (forms - fiords, ram's foreheads, drumlins, nunataks, eskers, kamas; moraine - lateral, median, internal, terminal and bottom; fluvioglacial deposits - ribbon clays, cross-stratified sands and etc.). Ancient metamorphosed moraine (tillites) can be found among Archean and Proterozoic metamorphosed rocks.

As with other descriptions of outcrops and areas of outcrops, in this case it is necessary to give the most detailed description of all features - shape, structure, scale of distribution, thickness, composition, etc.

In addition to the above processes, modern processes include the activity of groundwater. Therefore, it is necessary to be able to give a qualitative assessment of the manifestations of groundwater (pressure and non-pressure sources) and their possible genesis and location. Qualitative characteristics include determination of temperature, smell, taste, presence of mineralization and precipitation.

Testing

During geological work, there are a large number of types of sampling:

1 – selection of samples, chips for thin sections and rock samples for chemical, lithological, paleontological, radiological and other methods of analysis;

2 - spot testing;

3 - hydrogeochemical testing;

4 - phytogeochemical, zoogeochemical, peat-metallometric, soil;

5 - metallometric, metallogenic, etc.

The types and methods of testing, the volume of samples and the requirements for sample quality are determined, first of all, by the purpose and objectives of the testing and, secondly, by the degree of homogeneity and granularity (crystallinity) of the rocks. For example, for representative analysis chemical composition for a fine-grained, homogeneous rock, an ore weighing 1-1.5 kg is sufficient, and to isolate the required amount of zircon (to determine its age U-Pb method) hundreds of kilograms of rock are needed from gabbropyroxenites.

Spot testing (spot survey) is an effective method of exploratory sampling of loose subsoil rocks, channel deposits, spits, cliffs, river terraces, lower parts of river sides, alluvial cones, etc. It is aimed at identifying primary deposits and various types placers of heavy metals and minerals (sphene, chromite, gold, etc.). The sampling methodology is different, but the most practical way is reconnaissance samples, then condensation, and if the results are positive, detailing and delineation of the useful object.

From a concentrate sample of several kilograms, a concentrate weighing 10-100 grams is obtained. The spot sample is washed in a special wooden tray or metal ladle.

First stage of washing-removal of large pebbles and careful elutriation of clay particles by repeatedly turning the material in a tray (bucket) with water.

Second stage of washing-by shaking and rocking the tray with the sample in water, light particles are gradually washed off over the edge of the tray until a “gray concentrate” is obtained.

Third stage- the most responsible - finishing of the concentrate by washing off the remaining light minerals as completely as possible. Then the concentrate is dried, poured into a bag and numbered. During office processing, the concentrate is divided into magnetic, electromagnetic and non-magnetic fractions, then fractionation in liquids is carried out according to density properties. After diagnosing all minerals, their content in the concentrate is estimated as a percentage, and the data is plotted on a concentrate sampling map. The most common minerals in concentrates (heavy concentrates) on the Kola Peninsula are garnet, pyroxenes, amphiboles and ore (magnetite, titanomagnetite, etc.).

Phytogeochemical sampling forms the basis of the phytogeochemical method of searching for minerals. The selected material (fallen and unfallen leaves, moss, certain types of plants, etc.) is dried and burned. The remaining ash is then analyzed. The content of elements above the background for this material are search characteristics.

During hydrogeochemical testing From water samples with a volume of 1 liter, salts, elements and suspensions dissolved in them are precipitated using chemical reagents. Then clean water is drained, the sediment is filtered, dried and weighed. After this, the dry residue is analyzed. An increased content of a particular element is, as in the previous case, a positive search sign.

When doing phytogeochemical, hydrogeochemical and some other types of sampling, it is necessary (mandatory!) to take into account the influence of industrial pollution of the environment. For example, within the Kola Peninsula it is strongly manifested around enterprises in the cities of Nikel, Monchegorsk, Kirovsk and Apatity. Data on pollution have been published in many works by ecologists from the KSC RAS.

Mining and drilling work

Mining operations include the production of burrows, pits and ditches. They are carried out during geological surveys if the exposure of the area is poor and the thickness of the overlying loose sediments is insignificant.

Drilling operations are the drilling of shallow mapping wells that penetrate bedrock. They are carried out during geological surveys if the exposure of the area is poor and the thickness of the overlying loose sediments does not exceed a few tens of meters.