Monopolist demand function. The price of a monopolist's product depends on sales volume and is an inverse function of demand: . To increase sales volume, the monopolist is forced to reduce the price. Therefore, the monopolist's demand curve is downward sloping.

The monopolist's gross income is equal to and is a function of output. Gross income can be expressed as a function of price. Marginal revenue, by definition, is measured by the first derivative of the gross income function:

The quantity characterizes the change in price caused by a change in output and measures the slope of the demand curve. In conditions of perfect competition, since the price is set by the market and any quantity of products is sold at the same price. There are monopolies in the market, i.e. the slope of the demand curve is negative. It means that marginal revenue monopolist from the sale of any product is always below its price: . This means that the curve is always below the demand curve.

Let us consider the relationship between the gross and marginal income of a monopolist if the demand function is linear.

Demand function: , the slope of the demand line is equal to. Let's write the inverse demand function: . Then the gross income is equal to: . The total revenue curve is a parabola extending from the origin. Let us determine the marginal income of the monopolist:

The slope of the marginal revenue line is negative and in absolute value is twice the slope of the demand line. In general, the marginal revenue function has the form:

A necessary condition for the maximum value of a function of one variable is that its first derivative is equal to zero. The firm's gross income reaches its maximum value if... From the last equality we find the volume of production at which gross income is maximum. On the demand line there is a single point corresponding to the value at which. Thus, if, then a reaches a maximum. If it takes positive values, and demand is elastic, then it grows. On segments of the line of demand and gross income where the above conditions are met, the monopolist produces products. If marginal revenue is negative and demand is inelastic, then as output increases, gross revenue decreases.

1. Monopoly
What is a monopoly?
Monopolist's marginal revenue
Profit maximization by a monopolist
Monopoly and elasticity of demand
How do taxes affect the behavior of a monopolist?
Monopoly and efficiency
2. Monopolistic competition
Price and production volume under conditions monopolistic competition
3. Oligopoly
What is an oligopoly?
Oligopoly models
4. Use and distribution of resources by the firm
Marginal profitability of a resource
Marginal cost of a resource
Selecting a resource combination option
conclusions
Terms and concepts
Self-test questions

Perfect competition, as already noted, is rather an abstract model, convenient for analyzing the basic principles of the formation of a company’s market behavior. In reality, purely competitive markets are rare; as a rule, each company has “its own face,” and each consumer, choosing the products of a particular company, is guided not only by the usefulness of the product and its price, but also by his attitude towards the company itself, towards the quality of its products. her products. In this sense, the position of each company in the market is somewhat unique, or, in other words, there is an element of monopoly in its behavior.
This element leaves its mark on the company’s activities, forcing it to take a slightly different approach to the formation pricing strategy, determining the volume of production that is most effective from the point of view of profits and losses.

Monopoly

What is a monopoly?

To determine how monopoly influences the behavior of a company, let us dwell on the theory of monopoly. What is a monopoly? How are the costs of a monopolist enterprise formed, based on what principles does it set the price for its products and how does it determine the volume of production?
The concept of pure monopoly is also usually an abstraction. Even the complete absence of competitors within the country does not exclude their presence abroad. Therefore, one can imagine a pure, absolute monopoly rather theoretically. Monopoly means that one firm is the only manufacturer any products that have no analogues. At the same time, buyers do not have a choice and are forced to purchase these products from a monopolist company.
One should not equate pure monopoly with monopoly (market) power. The latter means the ability for a firm to influence price and increase economic profit by limiting the volume of production and sales. When they talk about the degree of monopolization of a market, they usually mean the strength of the market power of individual firms present in this market.
How does a monopolist behave in the market? He has complete control over the entire volume of product output; if he decides to increase the price, he is not afraid of losing part of the market, giving it to competitors who set lower prices. But this does not mean that he will endlessly increase the price of his products.
Since a monopoly firm, like any other firm, strives to obtain high profits, it takes into account market demand and costs when deciding on the selling price. Since the monopolist is the only producer of a given product, the demand curve for its product will coincide with the market demand curve.
What volume of production must the monopolist provide in order for its profit to be maximized? The decision on output volume is based on the same principle as in the case of competition, i.e. on the equality of marginal revenue and marginal cost.

Monopolist's marginal revenue

As already mentioned (see Chapter 11), a firm under conditions of perfect competition is characterized by equality of marginal revenue and price. For a monopolist the situation is different. The average income and price curve coincides with the market demand curve, and the marginal income curve lies below it.
Why does the marginal revenue curve lie below the market demand curve? Since the monopolist is the only manufacturer of products on the market and a representative of the entire industry, when he reduces the price of products to increase sales, he is forced to reduce it for all units of goods sold, and not just for the next one (Fig. 12.1).

Rice. 12.1. Price and marginal revenue of a monopolist firm:D - demand;MR - marginal revenue

For example, a monopolist can sell at a price of 800 rubles. only one unit of its products. To sell two units, he must reduce the price to 700 rubles. for both the first and second units of production. To sell three units of production, the price must become equal to 600 rubles. for each of them, four units - 500 rubles. etc. The income of the monopolist company will accordingly be upon sale: 1 unit. — 800 rub.; 2 units — 1400 (700.2); Z unit -1800 (600.3); 4 units - 2000 (500 . 4).
Accordingly, the marginal (or additional as a result of increasing sales by one unit of product) income will be: 1 unit. - 800 rub.; 2 units - 600 (1400 - 800); 3 units - 400(1800 - 1400); 4 units - 200 (2000 - 1800).
In Fig. 12.1, the demand and marginal revenue curves are shown as two divergent lines, and the marginal revenue in all cases, except for the release of 1 unit, is less than the price. And since the monopolist makes a decision on the volume of production, equalizing marginal revenue and marginal costs, the price and quantity of production will be different than under competition.

Profit maximization by a monopolist

To show at what price and what volume of output the monopolist's marginal revenue will be as close as possible to marginal costs and the resulting profit will be the greatest, let us turn to a numerical example. Let's imagine that the company is the only manufacturer of this product on the market, and summarize the data on its costs and income in table. 12.1.

Table 12.1. Dynamics of costs and income of company X under monopoly conditions

We assumed that 1 thousand units. A monopolist can sell its products at a price of 500 rubles. In the future, when expanding sales by 1 thousand units. he is forced to reduce its price by 12 rubles each time, so marginal income is reduced by 4 rubles. with every increase in sales volume. The firm will maximize profit by producing 14 thousand units. products. It is at this volume of output that its marginal revenue is closest to marginal cost. If it produces 15 thousand units, then this additional 1 thousand units. will add more to costs than to income, thereby reducing profits.
In a competitive market, when the price and marginal revenue of the firm are the same, 15 thousand units would be produced. products, and the price of these products would be lower than under monopoly conditions:

Graphically, the process of choosing price and production volume by a monopolist firm is shown in Fig. 12.2.

Rice. 12.2. Determination of price and production volume by a monopolist firm:D - demand;MR—marginal revenue; MC - marginal cost
Since in our example production is possible only in whole units of production, and point A on the graph lies between 14 and 15 thousand units, 14 thousand units will be produced. products. The 15th thousand that was not produced by the monopolist (and it would have been produced in a competitive environment) means a loss for consumers, since some of them refused to purchase due to the high price set by the monopolist manufacturer.
Any firm whose demand for its product is not perfectly elastic will face a situation where marginal revenue is less than price. Therefore, the price and volume of production that brings it maximum profit, will be respectively higher and lower than under conditions of perfect competition. In this sense, in the markets imperfect competition(monopoly, oligopoly, monopolistic competition) each firm has a certain amount of monopoly power, which is strongest in pure monopoly.

Monopoly and elasticity of demand

As already noted, marginal revenue under perfect competition is equal to the unit price of the product and the demand for the firm's products is perfectly elastic. When monopoly power exists, marginal revenue is less than price, the demand curve for the firm's product is sloping, which allows the firm with monopoly power to earn additional profits.


The elasticity of demand for a product (even if there is only one seller of this product on the market) affects the price set by the monopolist. Having information about the elasticity of demand E R, as well as data characterizing the marginal costs of the company MC, the company’s management can calculate the price of products P using the formula:

The higher the elasticity of demand, the closer the monopolist’s operating conditions are to the conditions of free competition, and vice versa, with inelastic demand, the monopolist has more opportunities to “inflate” prices and receive monopoly income.

How do taxes affect the behavior of a monopolist?

Since the tax increases marginal costs, their MC curve will shift to the left and up to position MC1 as shown in Fig. 12.3. The firm will now maximize its profit at the intersection of P1 and Q1.
The monopolist will reduce production and increase price as a result of the tax. How much it will increase the price can be calculated using formula (12.1). If the elasticity of demand, for example, is -1.5, then

Moreover, after the introduction of the tax, the price will increase by three times the amount of the tax. The effect of a tax on the monopoly price thus depends on the elasticity of demand: the less elastic the demand, the more the monopolist will increase the price after introducing the tax.

Rice. 12.3. The effect of a tax on the price and volume of production of a monopolist firm:D—demand, MR—marginal revenue; MC - marginal costs excluding tax; MC1 - marginal costs including tax

Valuation of monopoly power

The elasticity of demand is important factor limiting the firm's monopoly power in the market. If we are dealing with a pure monopoly (only one seller), the elasticity of demand becomes the only market factor restraining monopoly arbitrariness. That is why the activities of all industries natural monopoly regulated by the state. In many countries, natural monopoly enterprises are state property.
However, a pure monopoly is quite rare; as a rule, either monopoly power is divided between several large firms, or many small firms operate in the market, each of which produces products that are different from the others.
Thus, in imperfectly competitive markets, each firm has some degree of market power, which allows it to charge a price above its marginal revenue and earn an economic profit.
As is known, the difference between price and marginal revenue depends on the elasticity of demand for the company's products: the more elastic the demand, the less opportunities for obtaining additional profit, the less the market power of the company.
Under conditions of a pure monopoly, when the demand for a firm's products coincides with the market demand, its elasticity is a determining assessment of the firm's market power. In other cases, when market power is divided between two, three or more firms, it depends on the following factors:
1. Elasticity of market demand. The demand for an individual firm's products cannot be less elastic than market demand. The greater the number of firms represented on the market, the more elastic the demand for the products of each of them will be. The presence of competitors does not allow an individual firm to significantly raise its price without fear of losing part of its market.
Therefore, assessing the elasticity of demand for a company's products is information that should be known to the company's management. Data on elasticity should be obtained by analyzing the company’s sales activities, sales volume at various prices, marketing research, assessments of competitors’ activities, etc.
2. Number of firms on the market. However, the number of firms alone does not give an idea of ​​how monopolized the market is. To assess market competitiveness, the Herfindahl market concentration index is used, characterizing the degree of market monopolization:

H=p12 + p22 + …….+ p12 +….+ pn2 (12.2)
where H is the concentration indicator; p1 ,p2,…….,pi …. pn is the percentage share of firms in the market.

Example 12.1. Let us evaluate the degree of market monopolization in two cases: when the share of one firm is 80% of the total sales of a given product, and the remaining 20% ​​is distributed among the other three firms, and when each of the four firms makes 25% of sales on the market.
The market concentration index will be: in the first case H = 802+ 6.672 +6.672 + 6.672 = 6533;
in the second case H = 252i 4 == 2500.
In the first case, the degree of market monopolization is higher.

3. Behavior of firms in the market. If firms in the market adhere to a strategy of fierce competition, reducing prices to capture a larger market share and displace competitors, prices may fall almost to competitive levels (price and marginal cost equality). Monopoly power and, accordingly, monopoly income of firms will decrease. However, obtaining high incomes is very attractive for any company, therefore, instead of aggressive competition, overt or secret collusion and market division are more preferable.
The structure of the market and the degree of its monopolization must be taken into account by the company when choosing an operating strategy. The emerging Russian market is characterized by a highly monopolized structure, supported by the creation of last years various kinds of concerns, associations and other associations, one of the goals of which is to maintain high prices and ensure a “quiet existence”. However, the expected increase in openness Russian economy for the world economy leads to competition with foreign firms and significantly complicates the position of domestic monopolists.
In addition to the economies of scale already discussed above, there are other reasons leading to monopoly. Among them, a significant role is played by the establishment of barriers to entry of new firms into the industry. Such obstacles may include the need to obtain special permission. government agencies to engage in one or another type of activity, licensing and patent barriers, customs restrictions and direct import bans, difficulties in obtaining loans, high initial costs for opening a new enterprise, etc.
For example, to open a commercial bank in Russia, in addition to the established minimum size authorized capital A special permit from the Central Bank of the Russian Federation is required, which is quite difficult to obtain. It is no less difficult to “get” a relatively cheap loan. The introduced new import duties on alcoholic beverages, tobacco products, cars, etc. reduce competitive opportunities foreign goods and strengthen the position of domestic producers.
At the same time, obtaining high profits is a powerful incentive that attracts new firms to a monopolized industry. And if the industry is not a natural monopoly (and most Russian monopolies are not), then a monopolist firm can expect an unexpected competitor to appear at any moment.
The higher the profit of a monopolist enterprise, the more people want to enter the industry, for example, by expanding production and sales of substitute goods. The entry of new firms into the market with products that can effectively replace the monopolist's products leads to a switch in consumer demand. In such conditions, the monopolist will be forced to reduce the price and give up part of the profit in order to maintain its position in the market.
Legislative barriers to entry into the industry also do not last forever. To support government officials who express their interests, monopolists spend significant funds, which are included in costs, increasing them. Therefore, in a developed market economy, the position of monopolistic firms is not as “cloudless” as it seems at first glance.

Price discrimination

Price discrimination is one of the ways to expand the sales market under monopoly conditions. By producing less products and selling them at a higher price than under conditions pure competition, the monopolist thereby loses some of the potential buyers who would be willing to purchase the product if its price were lower than the monopoly price. however, by reducing the price in order to expand sales volume, the monopolist is forced to reduce the price of all products sold. But in some cases, a company may set different prices for the same products for different groups of buyers. If some buyers purchase products at a lower price than others, the practice occurs price discrimination.
Price discrimination can be carried out under the following conditions:
. the buyer, having purchased the product, does not have the opportunity to resell it;
. It is possible to divide all consumers of a given product into markets where demand has different elasticities.
Indeed, if a company producing any product that can be resold, such as televisions, refrigerators, cigarettes, etc., decides to resort to price discrimination, it will face next situation. Reducing the price of these goods for pensioners and maintaining it at the original level for all other categories of the population will lead to the fact that, when purchasing these goods, pensioners will immediately resell them. Besides this price policy may cause customer dissatisfaction.
A different situation arises if the products cannot be resold; This includes primarily certain types of services. In this case, for consumer groups whose demand is more elastic, different kinds price discounts. In other words, different groups consumers represent different markets, the elasticity of demand in which is different.
Let's assume that some airline sold 100 thousand air tickets at a price of 500 rubles. for one ticket. This price was set based on the equality of marginal revenue and marginal costs. The company's monthly gross income was RUB 50 million. However, as a result of the changes that occurred (fuel prices increased, workers' wages were increased), the company's costs increased, and the ticket price was doubled. At the same time, the number of tickets sold decreased by half and amounted to 50 thousand. Despite the fact that the total gross income remained at the level of 50 million rubles, there is an opportunity to generate additional income by attracting passengers who refused to fly due to the high price through discounts.
In Fig. Figure 12.4 graphically depicts a situation where the market for airline services is divided into two separate markets. The first (Fig. 12.4, a) is represented by wealthy people, businessmen, for whom speed of movement is important, and not the price of a ticket. Therefore, their demand is relatively inelastic. The second market (Fig. 12.4, b) is people for whom speed is not so important, and at high prices they will prefer to use the railway. In both cases, the airline's marginal cost is the same, only the elasticity of demand is different.
From Fig. 12.4 it is clear that with a ticket price of 1 thousand rubles. not a single consumer from the second market will use the airline's services. However, if this group of consumers is given a 50% discount, then the tickets will be sold and the company’s income will increase by 25 million rubles. monthly.

Rice. 12.4. Price discrimination model: MC - marginal costs,D andMR - demand and marginal revenue of the company in the first market;D1 andMR1 - demand and marginal revenue of the company in the second market
On the one hand, price discrimination allows increasing the monopolist’s income, and on the other hand, more consumers have the opportunity to use this type of service. This pricing policy is beneficial to both parties. However, in some countries, price discrimination is seen as an obstacle to competition and an increase in monopoly power, and its individual manifestations are subject to antitrust laws.

Monopoly and efficiency

Modern economists believe that the spread of monopoly reduces economic efficiency, for at least three main reasons.
First, the monopolist's profit-maximizing output is lower and the price higher than under perfect competition. This leads to the fact that society's resources are not used to their fullest extent, and at the same time, some of the products needed by society are not produced. The quantity of products produced does not reach the point corresponding to the minimum average gross costs, as a result of which production is not carried out at the minimum possible costs at a given level of technology. In other words, the maximum production efficiency is not achieved.
Secondly, being the only seller on the market, the monopolist does not strive to reduce production costs. There is no incentive for him to use the most advanced technology. Upgrading production, reducing costs, and flexibility are not issues of survival for him. For the same reasons, the monopolist has little interest in research and development and the use of the latest achievements of scientific and technological progress.
Thirdly, barriers to the entry of new firms into monopolized industries, as well as the enormous effort and resources that monopolists spend on maintaining and strengthening their own market power, have a restraining effect on economic efficiency. Small firms with new ideas find it difficult to break into monopolized markets.
Another point of view on the problems of monopoly and efficiency is represented by the position of J. Galbraith and J. Schumpeter. Without denying the negative aspects of a monopoly (for example, higher prices for products), they also highlight its advantages from the point of view scientific and technological progress. These advantages, in their opinion, are as follows:
1. Perfect competition requires each manufacturer to use the most efficient equipment and technology that already exists. However, the development of new progressive technical solutions is beyond the power of an individual competitive company. Significant funds are needed to finance R&D, which a small firm that does not receive a stable economic profit cannot have. At the same time, monopolies or oligopolies with high economic profits have sufficient financial resources to invest in scientific and technological progress.
2. The high barriers that exist to the entry of new firms into the industry give oligopolies and monopolies confidence that economic profits, which result from the use of scientific and technological advances in production, will last for a long time and investments in R&D will provide long-term returns.
3. Obtaining monopoly profits through higher prices is an incentive. innovation activity. If every cost-cutting innovation was followed by a price drop, there would be no reason to develop innovative processes.
4. A monopoly stimulates competition, since monopoly high profits are extremely attractive to other firms and support the latter’s desire to enter the industry.
5. In some cases, a monopoly helps reduce costs and realize economies of scale (natural monopoly). Competition in such industries would lead to higher average costs and lower efficiency.
In all countries with market economy Antitrust laws are in place to control and limit monopoly power.

2. Monopolistic competition

Two extreme types of markets were considered: perfect competition and pure monopoly. However, real markets do not fit into these types; they are very diverse. Monopolistic competition is a common type of market that is closest to perfect competition. The ability for an individual firm to control price (market power) is negligible here (Figure 12.5).

Rice. 12.5. Strengthening market power

Let us note the main features characterizing monopolistic competition:
. there are a relatively large number of small firms on the market;
. these firms produce a variety of products, and although each firm's product is somewhat specific, the consumer can easily find substitute goods and switch his demand to them;
. entry of new firms into the industry is not difficult. To open a new vegetable shop, atelier, or repair shop, no significant initial capital is required. Economies of scale also do not require the development of large-scale production.
The demand for the products of firms operating in conditions of monopolistic competition is not completely elastic, but its elasticity is high. For example, monopolistic competition includes a market sportswear. Adherents of Reebok sneakers are willing to pay a higher price for its products than for sneakers from other companies, but if the price difference turns out to be too significant, the buyer will always find analogs from lesser-known companies on the market at a lower price. The same applies to products from the cosmetics industry, clothing, medicines, etc.
The competitiveness of such markets is also very high, which is largely due to the ease of access of new firms to the market. Let us compare, for example, the market for steel pipes and the market for washing powders. The first is an example of oligopoly, the second is monopolistic competition.
Entering the steel pipe market is difficult due to large economies of scale and large initial capital investments, while the production of new varieties of washing powders does not require the creation of a large enterprise. Therefore, if firms producing powders earn large economic profits, this will lead to an influx of new firms into the industry. New firms will offer consumers washing powders new brands, sometimes not much different from those already produced (in new packaging, different colors or intended for washing different types fabrics).

Price and production volume under conditions of monopolistic competition

How is a firm's price and production volume determined under conditions of monopolistic competition? In the short run, firms will choose the price and output that maximize profits or minimize losses, based on the already known principle of equality of marginal revenue and marginal costs.
In Fig. Figure 12.6 shows the curves of price (demand), marginal revenue, marginal and average variables and gross costs of two firms, one of which maximizes profits (Fig. 12.6, a), the other minimizes losses (Fig. 12.6, b).

Rice. 12.6. The price and volume of production of a firm in conditions of monopolistic competition, maximizing profits (a) and minimizing losses (b):D - demand:MR—marginal revenue; MC - marginal costs:AVC - average variable costs; ATC - average gross costs

The situation is in many ways similar to perfect competition. The difference is that the demand for a firm's output is not perfectly elastic, and therefore the marginal revenue schedule falls below the demand schedule. The greatest profit the firm will receive at price P0 and output Q0, and minimal losses at price P1 and output Q1.
However, in monopolistic competitive markets, economic profits and losses cannot last long. In the long run, firms suffering losses will choose to exit the industry, and high economic profits will encourage new firms to enter. New firms, producing products that are similar in nature, will gain their market share, and the demand for the goods of the firm that received economic profit will decrease (the demand graph will shift to the left).
A reduction in demand will reduce the firm's economic profit to zero. In other words, the long-term goal of firms operating under monopolistic competition is to break even. The long-term equilibrium situation is shown in Fig. 12.7.

Rice. 12.7. Long-run equilibrium Firms under monopolistic competition:D - demand;MR—marginal revenue; MC - marginal costs; ATC - average gross costs

The lack of economic profit discourages new firms from entering the industry and old firms from leaving the industry. However, in conditions of monopolistic competition, the desire to break even is more of a tendency. IN real life Firms can earn economic profits for a fairly long period. This is due to product differentiation. Some types of products produced by firms are difficult to reproduce. At the same time, barriers to entry into the industry, although not high, still exist. For example, to open a hairdresser or engage in private medical practice, you must have the appropriate education confirmed by a diploma.
Is the market mechanism of monopolistic competition effective? From the point of view of resource use, no, since production is not carried out at minimum costs (see Fig. 12.7): production Q0 does not reach the value where the firm’s average gross costs are minimal, i.e. make up the value of Q1. However, if we evaluate efficiency from the point of view of satisfying the interests of consumers, then the variety of goods, reflecting the individual needs of people, is more preferable for them than monotonous products that are more low prices and to a greater extent.

3. Oligopoly

What is an oligopoly?

Oligopoly is a type of market in which a few firms control the bulk of the market. At the same time, the product range can be both small (oil) and quite extensive (automobiles, chemical products). An oligopoly is characterized by restrictions on the entry of new firms into the industry; they are associated with economies of scale, large advertising expenditures, and existing patents and licenses. High barriers to entry are also a consequence of actions taken by leading firms in an industry to prevent new competitors from entering.
A feature of oligopoly is the interdependence of firms' decisions on prices and production volume. No such decision can be made by a company without taking into account and assessing possible responses from competitors. The actions of competing firms is an additional constraint that firms must consider when determining optimal prices and production volume. Not only costs and demand, but also the response of competitors determine decision making. Therefore, an oligopoly model must reflect all these three points.

Oligopoly models

There is no single theory of oligopoly. However, economists have developed a number of models, which we will briefly discuss.
Cournot model. The first attempt to explain the behavior of oligopoly was made by the Frenchman A. Cournot in 1838. His model was based on the following premises:
. there are only two firms on the market;
. Each firm, when making its decision, considers its competitor's price and production volume to be constant.
Let us assume that there are two firms operating in the market: X and Y. How will firm X determine the price and volume of production? In addition to costs, they depend on demand, and demand, in turn, on how many products firm Y will produce. However, what firm Y will do is unknown to firm X; it can only assume possible options for its actions and plan its own production accordingly.
Since market demand is a given value, the expansion of production by a firm will cause a reduction in demand for the products of firm X. In Fig. Figure 12.8 shows how the demand schedule for firm X's products will shift (it will shift to the left) if firm Y begins to expand sales. The price and production volume set by firm X based on the equality of marginal revenue and marginal costs will decrease, respectively, from P0 to P1, P2 and from Q0 to Q1,Q2.

Rice. 12.8. Cournot model. Change in price and volume of output by firm X when firm Y expands production:D - demand;MR—marginal revenue; MC - marginal cost

If we consider the situation from the position of company Y, then we can draw a similar graph reflecting the change in the price and quantity of its products depending on the actions taken by company X.
Combining both graphs, we obtain the reaction curves of both firms to each other’s behavior. In Fig. 12.9, the X curve reflects the reaction of the company of the same name to changes in the production of the Y company, and the Y curve, respectively, vice versa. Equilibrium occurs at the point of intersection of the reaction curves of both firms. At this point, firms' assumptions match their actual actions.

Rice. 12.9. Reaction curves of firms X and Y to each other's behavior

The Cournot model does not reflect one essential circumstance. It is assumed that competitors will react to a firm's price change in a certain way. When firm Y enters the market and takes away some of the consumer demand from firm Y, the latter “gives up” and enters the price game, reducing prices and production volume. However, firm X can take an active position and, by significantly reducing the price, prevent firm Y from entering the market. Such actions of the firm are not covered by the Cournot model.
A “price war” reduces the profits of both sides. Since the decisions of one of them influence the decisions of the other, there are reasons to agree on fixing prices and dividing the market in order to limit competition and ensure high profits. Since all kinds of collusions are subject to antimonopoly legislation and are prosecuted by the state, firms in an oligopoly prefer to refuse them.
Because price competition is not beneficial to anyone, each firm would be willing to keep a higher price provided that its competitor does the same. Even if demand changes, or costs are reduced, or some other event occurs that allows the price to be reduced without harming profits, the company will not do this for fear that competitors will perceive such a move as the beginning of a price war. Increasing prices is also not attractive, since competitors may not follow the company's example.
The firm's reaction to price changes by competitors is reflected in curved curve models demand for a firm's products in an oligopoly. This model was proposed in 1939 by the Americans
R. Hall, K. Hitcham and P. Sweezy. In Fig. Figure 12.10 shows the demand and marginal revenue curves of firm X (highlighted with a bold line). If a firm raises its price above P0, its competitors will not raise prices in response. As a result, firm X will lose its customers. The demand for its products at prices above P0 is very elastic. If firm X sets a price below P0, then competitors are likely to follow it in order to maintain their market share. Therefore, at prices below P0, demand will be less elastic.

Rice. 12.10. Bent demand curve model:D1,MR1 - demand curves and marginal revenue of the firm at prices above P0;D2 MR2—demand and marginal revenue curves for the firm at prices below P0

A sharp difference in the elasticity of demand at prices above and below P0 leads to the fact that the marginal revenue curve is interrupted, which means that a decrease in price cannot be compensated by an increase in sales volume. The curved demand curve model provides an answer to the question of why firms in an oligopoly strive to maintain stable prices by transferring competition to the non-price area.
There are other models of oligopoly based on game theory. Thus, when determining its own strategy, the company evaluates the likely profits and losses, which will depend on what strategy the competitor chooses. Let's assume that firms A and B control the majority of sales in the market. Each of them strives to increase sales and thereby ensure increased profits. You can achieve results by reducing prices and attracting additional buyers, activating advertising activities and so on.
However, the outcome for each firm depends on the competitor's reaction. If firm A starts cutting prices and firm B follows, neither will increase their market share and their profits will decline. However, if firm A lowers its prices and firm B does not do the same, then firm A's profits will increase. When developing its pricing strategy, firm A calculates possible responses from firm B (Table 12.2).

Table 12.2. The influence of market strategy on changes in the profit of firm A
(numerator) and company B (denominator), million rubles.

If firm A decides to reduce prices and firm B follows, the profit of firm A will decrease by 1000 thousand rubles. If company A reduces prices, and company B does not do the same, then the profit of company A will increase by 1,500 thousand rubles. If firm A does not take any steps in the area of ​​prices, and firm B reduces its prices, the profit of firm A will be reduced by 1,500 thousand rubles. If both firms leave prices unchanged, their profits will remain unchanged.
What strategy will firm A choose? The best option for her is a reduction in prices with the stability of company B, in this case the profit increases by 1500 thousand rubles. However, this option is the worst from the point of view of firm B. For both firms, it would be advisable to leave prices unchanged, while profits would remain at the same level. At the same time, fearing the worst of possible options, firms will reduce their prices, losing 1000 thousand rubles each. arrived. Firm A's strategy to reduce prices is called strategy of least losses.
The desire for minimal losses can explain why firms in an oligopoly prefer to spend significant amounts of money on advertising, increasing their costs without achieving an increase in market share.
None of the above oligopoly models can answer all the questions related to the behavior of firms in such markets. However, they can be used to analyze certain aspects of firms' activities in these conditions.

4. Use and distribution of resources by the firm

As shown above, firms in market conditions widely use the method of comparing marginal revenue and costs when making decisions about sales volume and product price. The same method is used to determine the amount of resources necessary for the production of products, providing the company with minimum total costs and, accordingly, maximum profit. This is exactly what will be discussed below.
What determines the demand for resources on the part of an individual firm? First of all, it depends on the demand for finished products produced using these resources, therefore, the higher the demand for products, the higher the demand for the necessary resources, taking into account changes in the efficiency of their use. So, in developed countries Demand for energy resources is growing very slowly. .Another circumstance affecting the demand for resources is their prices. The company's funds allocated for the purchase of resources are included in its production costs, so the company strives to use resources in such a quantity and combination that will allow it to obtain maximum profit.
The amount of resources a firm uses depends on their output, or productivity. The latter is subject to the law of diminishing returns. Therefore, the firm will expand its use of resources until each additional resource increases its income to a greater extent than its costs.
How does the introduction of additional resources into production affect the firm's income? An increase in the use of any resource leads to an increase in output and, consequently, the firm's income.

Marginal profitability of a resource

Suppose the firm uses only one variable resource. They may find it difficult separate species equipment, etc. The increase in product output in physical terms, ensured by an increase in of this resource per unit, got the name marginal product. The increase in a firm's income due to an additional unit of a given resource is called marginal return on a resource or income from the marginal revenue product MRP. As noted above, marginal product first rises and then begins to decline in accordance with the law of diminishing returns. Since the growth of the marginal product occurs over a very short period, we can neglect it and assume that from the very beginning it will decrease.
Let's consider the marginal profitability of the resource of company X (Table 12.3). If a firm operates under conditions of perfect competition, the price of output is constant and does not depend on the volume of output. If the firm is an imperfect competitor, then it is forced to reduce its price as it expands its sales volume. Accordingly, the marginal return on the resource of an imperfect competitor firm does not coincide with the marginal return on the resource of a competitive firm.

Table 12.3. Marginal profitability of resource firm X under conditions of perfect and imperfect competition in the product market

From the data in table. 12.3 shows that the rate of decline in the profitability of a resource for a monopolist is higher than for a purely competitive firm, and the graph of the marginal profitability of a resource for a monopolist will have a steeper slope (Fig. 12.11). This circumstance is important for the company, since marginal profitability is one of the factors that determines the amount of a given resource that the company will use.
But to make a decision to expand the use of a given resource in production, a company must not only know how the additional resource will affect the increase in its income. She always compares income with costs and estimates profit. Therefore, she must determine how the purchase and use of an additional resource will affect the increase in costs.

Rice. 12.11. Graph of the marginal return on a resource for a firm under conditions of perfect and imperfect competition in the market finished products: MRP1, MRP2 - marginal returns, respectively, under the specified conditions;Qres — amount of resource used;Qres — resource price

Marginal cost of a resource

The increase in costs due to the introduction of an additional unit of a variable resource into production is called marginal cost resource. When a firm faces perfectly competitive conditions in a resource market, its marginal cost of a resource will be equal to the price of that resource.
For example, if small company wants to hire an accountant, he will be paid according to the market rate wages. Since the firm's demand is only a small fraction of the demand for accountants, it will not be able to influence their salary levels. The firm's marginal labor costs will look like a horizontal line (for example, see Figure 12.12).

How much resource should I use?

The principle of choosing the quantity of a resource used by a company is similar to the principle of determining the optimal volume of output. It will be profitable for a firm to increase the amount of a resource it uses to the point where its marginal return is equal to the marginal cost of that resource (Figure 12.12). In the example under consideration, with a resource price of 1000 rubles. a firm in conditions of perfect competition in the finished product market will use 6 units. of this resource (graph of the marginal profitability MRP1), and in conditions of imperfect competition - only 5 units. (graph of the marginal profitability of the resource MRP2).

Rice. 12.12. The optimal amount of resource used for a competitive firm and for a firm that is an imperfect competitor in the finished product market:MPR1 andMPR2 - marginal resource returns for a company under conditions of, respectively, perfect and imperfect competition in the finished product market; MSres - marginal cost per resource

We have determined how much of a variable resource the firm will use, provided that all other resources are constant. However, in practice, the company faces the question of how to combine the resources used to obtain maximum profit. In other words, she is faced with a situation where several resources are variable and it is necessary to determine in what combination to use them.

Selecting a resource combination option

The choice by the manufacturer of the combination of resources that ensures minimal costs is reminiscent of the choice of the consumer (see Chapter 9). From various sets of goods offered that bring him equal satisfaction, the consumer chooses one that suits his limited budget.
The manufacturer makes a choice from all the options for combining the resources used, with the help of which it is possible to produce a given amount of finished products, taking into account the prices of the resources. Let's assume that two interchangeable resources are used. For example, the company took upon itself the clearing of snow from city streets. For this purpose, she needs wipers and snow removal equipment. How many equipment and how many wipers does she need to complete a fixed amount of work at the lowest cost?
Let's build a graph showing all possible combinations of the number of cars and the number of wipers (Fig. 12.3). You can use 4 cars and 20 people, 2 cars and 40 people, 1 car and 80 people, as well as any other combination marked by any point on the curve. The curve has a curved shape: with an increase in the number of janitors, their marginal profitability will decrease, and, on the contrary, machines will increase. This is due to the well-known law of diminishing returns. The total income at all points will be the same and equal to the area of ​​the harvested territory multiplied by the cost of cleaning its unit (1 km2).

Rice. 12.13. Graph of possible combinations of two types of resources required to complete a given amount of work: K - number snow removal machines; L - number of janitors

In order to make a decision on how many cars and wipers are needed to clean the streets, it is not enough for a company to know only their required number and number. It is necessary to take into account the costs the company will incur as a result of using different quantities manual labor and machines, and determine the minimum. Costs depend on the price of snow removal equipment and the wages of janitors.
Let's assume that using one car will cost the company 20 thousand rubles, and hiring 10 janitors will cost 10 thousand rubles. The total amount of company costs associated with the purchase of machines and the hiring of janitors can be calculated using the formula:

C=KKK+LPL (12.3)

Where C— total costs companies, thousand rubles; K—number of cars, pcs.; RK - price of the car, thousand rubles; L is the number of janitors, tens of people; PL - the cost of hiring 10 janitors, thousand rubles.

Rice. 12.14. Possible combinations of two resources with the same total cost: K—number of snow removal machines;L - number of janitors

In Fig. Figure 12.14 shows three graphs corresponding to three options for the firm's total costs. For example, graph C1 shows all possible combinations of machines and manual labor, which cost 60 thousand rubles; C2—at 80 thousand and C3—at 100 thousand. The slope of the graphs depends on the ratio of the price of the car and the salary of the janitor.
To determine what costs will be minimal when performing a given amount of work, let’s compare the graphs presented in Fig. 12.13 and 12.14 (Fig. 12.15).
Curve in Fig. 12.15 clearly shows that neither at point A1 nor at point A3, the company’s costs will be minimal, they will amount to 100 thousand rubles, while at point A2 costs will be equal to 80 thousand rubles. In other words, the minimum costs will be achieved if the company uses two snow removal machines and hires 40 janitors.

Rice. 12.15. Graph of the combination of two resources that minimizes the firm's costs

How can a firm find this point without resorting to drawing graphs? Let us note that at point A2 the slope of the curve reflecting various combinations of the number of machines and the number of janitors required to perform a given job (see Fig. 12.13) and the straight line showing these combinations corresponding to a given amount of costs (see Fig. 12.14) , match up.
The slope of the curve reflects the ratio of the marginal returns of the factors of production used, and the slope of the straight line reflects the ratio of prices for these factors. From this we can conclude that the firm will minimize costs when the ratio of the marginal profitability of each resource to its price is equal:

where KRPK and KRPL are the marginal returns of the car and the janitor; PK and PL—the price of the car and the salary of the janitor
In other words, a firm will minimize its costs when the cost of producing an additional unit of output or performing an additional amount of work is the same, regardless of what it uses to do it - new group windshield wipers or a new snowblower.
If the price of one of the factors changes, the firm will minimize costs with another combination of them.

conclusions

1. A pure monopoly assumes that one firm is the only producer of a given product that has no analogues. The monopolist has complete control over its price and output.
2. The reasons for monopoly are: a) economies of scale; b) legislative obstacles to the entry of new firms into the industry, patents and licenses; c) dishonest behavior, etc.
3. The demand curve for the products of a monopolist firm is sloping and coincides with the market demand curve. Costs and market demand are the constraints that prevent a monopolist from arbitrarily setting a high price for its products. Maximizing profit, he determines the price and volume of production based on the equality of marginal revenue and marginal cost. Since the monopolist's marginal revenue curve lies below the demand curve, it will sell at a higher price and produce less of it than under perfect competition.
4. The factor limiting monopoly power in the market is the elasticity of market demand. The higher the elasticity, the less monopoly power, and vice versa. The degree of monopoly power is also influenced by the number of firms in the market, concentration, and competitive strategy.
5. Monopoly reduces economic efficiency. Antitrust laws different countries prevent the emergence and strengthening of monopoly power. Subject government regulation are natural monopolies. In natural monopoly industries, many enterprises are state property.
6. In real life, pure monopoly, as well as perfect competition, is quite rare. Real markets are very diverse and are characterized by conditions of monopolistic competition, gradually turning into oligopoly.
7. Under monopolistic competition, many small firms produce a variety of differentiated products; entry of new firms into the industry is not difficult. In the short run, firms choose the price and output that maximize profits or minimize losses. The easy entry of new firms into the industry leads to a tendency to obtain normal profits in the long run, when economic profits tend to zero.
8. Oligopolistic industries are characterized by the presence of several large firms, each of which controls a significant share of the market. A feature of oligopoly is the mutual dependence of the decisions of individual firms in the field of production volume and price. The entry of new firms into the industry is significantly difficult, and economies of scale make existence inefficient large quantity manufacturers. There are different models that describe the behavior of oligopolists, including the Cournot model and the curved demand curve model. However, there is no single theory of oligopoly that could explain all the diversity of behavior of firms.
9. On the part of an individual firm, the demand for resources is determined by their marginal return. The marginal return of any variable resource decreases slowly according to the law of diminishing returns. The firm will expand the use of the resource until its marginal return is higher than its marginal cost, i.e. until the moment when these two indicators become equal.
In conditions where a firm's demand for a resource is a small fraction of the market demand for it, the marginal cost of the resource for a given firm is equal to its price.
10. The company strives to choose a combination of resources used that ensures minimal costs. This is possible if the marginal return of each resource is proportional to its price.

Terms and concepts

Monopoly (market) power
Price discrimination
Marginal profitability of a resource
Marginal cost of a resource

Self-test questions

1. What are the reasons for the emergence of a monopoly?
2. How are price and production volume determined under monopoly conditions?
3. What factors influence monopoly power? How does concentration of production affect monopoly power? In which of the two options is monopoly power higher: a) there are five firms in the market, each of which has an equal share in total sales; b) sales shares are distributed as follows: company 1 - 25%, 2-10%, 3-50%, 4-7%, 5-8%?
4. Why do monopolies resort to price discrimination? What conditions make it possible? How does price discrimination affect a monopoly's profits?
5. What are the similarities and differences between perfect and monopolistic competition? What are the advantages and disadvantages of monopolistic competition?
6. Why can we talk about a tendency to obtain normal profits in the long run for firms operating in conditions of monopolistic competition?
7. What are the main features of oligopoly?
8. Why is there no single theory that fully reflects the behavior of firms in the market? Why do they prefer non-price competition to price competition? What is Cournot equilibrium?
9. What type of market can be classified as: automotive industry, ferrous metallurgy, light industry, service sector?
10. What types of markets are formed in certain sectors of the Russian economy? It is often said that up to 80% of Russian mechanical engineering is monopolized. Is it so?
11. What determines the amount of resource used by a company?
12. What is the marginal return of a resource? What is the difference between the marginal returns of a resource for a competitive firm and a monopolist firm in the finished product market?
13. Suppose that the company is a monopolist in the finished goods market. How many workers will she hire at a wage rate of 1200 rubles?
How many workers would it employ in a perfectly competitive product market? The information required to answer the question is listed below:

What happens if the wage rate doubles?

Gross income or the company’s revenue () is the product’s price () multiplied by the volume of output (sales) ():

Average income firm() is the quotient of revenue divided by sales volume:

Therefore, average income is simply another name for the price of a good.

In conditions of perfect competition, the price is determined by the market, and an individual firm, occupying a negligible market share, accepts it as given (is price taker), i.e. can sell any quantity of its products at a fixed market price. Therefore, the revenue function of a perfectly competitive firm from output is linear, and the slope of the line is TR equal to the price of the product (Fig. 10.1).

Rice. 10.1. Revenue of a perfectly competitive firm

Accordingly, as price increases, the slope increases and the revenue curve shifts from position to position. And vice versa.

Marginal Revenue firm (MR) is the increase in gross income with an increase in sales by one unit:

We can say this: marginal revenue is the additional income that a firm receives from producing an additional unit of output.

If the revenue function from the issue is known (TR = f(q)), the marginal revenue function can be obtained by taking the derivative of revenue by output:

Since the price is set by the market, and an individual firm can sell any quantity of output at this price, The market demand curve for a firm's product is a horizontal line: at the slightest price increase by a firm, the demand for its product drops to zero, as buyers go to other sellers. It also follows from this that The marginal revenue of a perfectly competitive firm is equal to the price of the product:M.R.= R.

Let's see this with an example. Let the store sell beer for 10 rubles. per bottle. This means that each subsequent bottle sold increases the store’s revenue by exactly the price of the bottle. Let's draw up a table of the store's revenue and marginal income depending on the number of bottles sold (Table 10.1).

Table 10.1. Revenue and marginal revenue of a competitive firm

The demand line for a competitive firm's product is shown in Fig. 10.2.

Rice. 10.2. Equilibrium market price and demand curve for an individual firm's product

In Fig. Figure 10.2a shows the curves in the market for this product. Here hundreds of sellers and thousands of buyers collide, respectively, the quantities of supply and demand (q) are measured in many thousands, and maybe millions of units of production. As a result of the interaction of supply and demand, the equilibrium market price of the product (P*) is formed. In Fig. 10.26 we observe the position of an individual firm, which is a grain of sand on a market scale. The firm takes the market price as given and is able to sell any quantity of its products at this price. In other words, buyers can purchase any quantity of a firm's product at the equilibrium market price: the market demand curve for the product of an individual perfectly competitive firm is a horizontal line.

Since the monopolist is the only producer of a given product, the demand curve for the monopolist's product is at the same time the market demand curve for the product. This curve has, as usual, a negative slope (Fig. 11.16). Therefore, a monopolist can control the price of his product, but then he will have to face a change in the quantity of demand: the higher the price, the lower the demand. Monopoly is a price finder. Its goal is to set a price (and therefore choose an output) at which its profit will be maximized.

General rule: profit is maximum at the output when marginal revenue equals marginal cost - MR = MS(topic 10, paragraph 10.3) - remains true for a monopoly. The only difference is that for a perfectly competitive firm the marginal revenue line (MR) horizontal and coincides with the market price line at which this firm can sell any quantity of its products (topic 10, clause 10.2). In other words, the marginal revenue of a competitive firm is equal to price. On the contrary, for a monopoly the line M.R. not horizontal and does not coincide with the price line (demand curve).

To justify this, remember that marginal revenue is the increase in revenue when output increases by one unit:

For an example of calculating marginal income, let’s take

the most simple function demand for the monopoly product: P= 10 - q. Let's make a table (Table 11.1).

Table 11.1. Monopolist's marginal revenue

From the data in the table it follows that if a monopolist reduces the price from 10 to 9, demand increases from 0 to 1. Accordingly, revenue increases by 9. This is the marginal income received when producing an additional unit of output. Increasing output by one more unit leads to an increase in revenue by another 7, etc. In the table, the values ​​of marginal revenue are not located strictly below the values ​​of price and demand, but between them. In this case, the increments of output are not infinitesimal, and therefore the marginal income is obtained, as it were, “in the transition” from one value of production to another.

At the moment when marginal revenue reaches zero (the last unit of output does not increase revenue at all), the monopoly's revenue reaches a maximum. A further increase in production leads to a drop in revenue, i.e. marginal revenue becomes negative.

The data in the table allows us to conclude that the marginal revenue value associated with each output value (except zero) turns out to be less than the corresponding price value. The fact is that when an additional unit of output is produced, revenue increases by the price of this unit of output ( R). At the same time, to sell this additional unit

release, we have to reduce the price by the amount But according to the new

not only the last one, but also all previous units of production are sold at a price (q), previously sold at a higher price. Therefore, the monopolist suffers losses in revenue from the price reduction,

equal . Subtracting from the gains from output growth the losses from

price reduction, we obtain the value of the marginal revenue, which turns out to be less than the new price:

For infinitesimal changes in price and demand, the formula takes the form:

where is the derivative of the price function with respect to demand.

Let's return to the table. Let the monopolist set a price of 7 last week, selling 3 units at it. goods. Trying to increase revenue, he lowers the price this week to 6, which allows him to sell 4 units. goods. This means that from expanding output by one unit, the monopolist receives 6 units. additional income. But from the sale of the first 3 units. he now receives only 18 units of goods. revenue instead of 21 units. last week. The monopolist's losses from a price reduction are therefore equal to 3. Therefore, the marginal income from expanding sales with a price reduction is: 6 - 3 = 3 (see Table 11.1).

It can be strictly proven that at linear function demand for the monopolist's product, the function of his marginal revenue is also linear, and its slope is twice as large as the slope of the demand curve(Fig. 11.3).

If the demand function is specified analytically: R = P(q), then to determine the marginal revenue function it is easiest to first calculate

Rice. 11.3.

maintain the function of revenue from the issue: TR = P(q)xq, and then take its derivative by output:

Let's combine the functions of demand and marginal income (MR), limit (MS) and average costs (AS) monopolist in one picture (Fig. 11.4).

Rice. 11.4.

Point of intersection of curves M.R. And MS defines release (q m), at which the monopolist receives maximum profit. Here marginal revenue equals marginal cost. On the demand curve we find the monopoly price corresponding to this output (R t). At this price (output volume), the monopoly is in a state of balance, for it is not profitable for her to either raise or lower the price.

In this case, at the equilibrium point, the monopolist receives economic profit (excess profit). It is equal to the difference between its revenue and total costs:

In Fig. 11.4 revenue is the area of ​​the rectangle OP m Eq m , total costs - area of ​​the rectangle OCFq m . Therefore, the profit is equal to the area of ​​the rectangle CP m EF.

It is noteworthy that in conditions of monopoly equilibrium the price turns out to be higher than marginal costs. This is in contrast to the equilibrium of a competitive firm: such a firm chooses the output at which price is exactly equal to marginal cost. The problems arising from this will be discussed below.

In the topic “Perfect competition” (paragraph 4) it was said that in the long term a competitive firm is not able to make economic profit. This is not the case under monopoly conditions. As soon as a monopolist manages to protect its market from the invasion of competitors, it maintains economic profit over a long period.

At the same time, possessing monopoly power does not in itself guarantee economic profit, even in a short period. A monopolist may incur losses if demand for its products falls or its costs increase - for example, due to rising prices for resources or taxes (Fig. 11.5).

Rice. 11.5.

In the figure, the average total cost curve of the monopoly passes above the demand curve for any volume of output, which dooms the monopoly to losses. By choosing an output at which marginal revenue equals marginal cost, the monopolist minimizes its losses in the short run. The total loss is equal to the area CFEPm. Over the long term, a monopolist may try to lower its costs by changing the amount of capital used. If he fails, he will have to leave the industry.

Select correct option answer.

1.Marginal costs are...

1. maximum production costs

2. average cost of producing a product

3. costs associated with producing an additional unit of product

4. minimum costs for product release

2. The cost of producing a unit of output is ...

1.total costs

2. average costs

3. average income

4. total variable costs

3.Which of the listed types of costs are absent in the long run...

1. fixed costs

2. variable costs

3. total costs

4. distribution costs

4. K variable costs include costs associated...

1. with an increase in total costs

2. with a change in the volume of products produced

3. only with internal costs

4. with an increase in fixed capital

Economic profit is less than accounting profit

by the amount...

1. external costs

2. internal costs

3. fixed costs

4. variable costs

6. Variable costs include...

1. depreciation

3. interest on loan

4. salary

7. Normal profit, as a reward for entrepreneurial talent, is included in ...

1. economic profit

2. internal costs

3. external costs

4. rent payments

8. The company’s purchase of raw materials from suppliers includes ...

1. to external costs

2. to internal costs

3. to fixed costs

4. to distribution costs

9. Accounting profit is equal to the difference...

1. between gross income and internal costs

3. between external costs and normal profit

A typical example of variable costs (costs) for a company

serve...

1. raw material costs

2. management personnel costs

3. expenses for salaries of support staff

4. fee for a business license.

11. If the long-term average costs (costs) of producing a unit of output decrease as production volume increases:

1. there are diseconomies of scale

2. there is a positive effect of scale

3. there are constant economies of scale

4. There is not enough data.

12. Suppose that an entrepreneur, having his own premises and cash, organized a repair workshop household appliances. After working for several months, he found that his accounting profit was 357 monetary units, and normal - 425 (for the same period). In this case, the economic decision

entrepreneur...

1. effective

2. ineffective.

13. Total production costs are...

1. costs associated with the use of all resources and services to produce products

2. explicit (external) costs

3. implicit (internal) costs, including normal profit

4. producer costs associated with the purchase of durable consumer goods.

14. External costs are...

1. expenses associated with the acquisition of resources and services for the production of products

3. expenses for the purchase of raw materials and materials in order to replenish production inventories

4. revenue from sales of manufactured products.

15. Internal costs include...

1. expenses for the purchase of raw materials and supplies for production

2. costs of resources owned by the enterprise

3. expenses associated with the acquisition of a plot of land by an enterprise

4. rent for the equipment used.

16. Economic profit is equal to the difference...

1. between gross income and external costs

2. between external and internal costs

3. between gross income and total costs

4. between accounting and normal profit.

17. Accounting profit is equal to the difference...

1. between gross income and internal costs;

2. between total revenue and depreciation

3. external costs and normal profit

4. between gross income and external costs.

Marginal revenue is equal to the price of the good for the producer acting

in conditions …

1. oligopolies

2. perfect competition

3. monopolistic competition

4. pure monopoly

19.Fixed costs include all of the following costs, except...

1. depreciation

3. percent

4. wages;

5. administrative and management expenses.

20. Variable costs include all of the following costs, except...

1. wages

2. costs of raw materials and supplies

3. depreciation

4. electricity fees

21. The cost of producing a unit of output is …

1. total costs

2. average costs

3. average income

4. full variable costs.

22.The increase in product caused by attracting an additional unit of resource is called...

1. marginal costs

2. marginal income

3. marginal product

4. marginal utility.

23. Under the law of diminishing returns (returns), production costs for each subsequent unit of production ...

1. decrease

2. increase

3. remains unchanged

4. decrease if average fixed costs decrease.

24. The difference between revenue and resource costs is...

1. balance sheet profit

2. accounting profit

3. normal profit

4. economic profit.