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The main stages of printing production

The prepress production process ends with the creation of an information carrier from which text, graphic and illustrative elements can be transferred to paper (printing form production).

The printing process, or printing proper, produces printed sheets. For their production, a printing machine and a carrier of information prepared for printing (printing form) are used.

In the third stage of printing technology, called the post-press process, the final processing and finishing of printed materials are carried out. printing machine sheets of paper (prints) to give the resulting printed matter presentation (brochure, book, booklet, etc.).
Prepress process. At this stage, one or more (for multi-color products) printing plates for printing a certain type of work should be obtained.

If the print is single-color, then the form can be a sheet of plastic or metal (aluminum), on which a drawing is applied in a direct (readable) image. The surface of the offset form is processed in such a way that, despite the fact that the printing and non-printing elements are practically in the same plane, they perceive the ink applied to it selectively, providing an impression on paper when printing. If multi-color printing is required, then the number of printing forms must correspond to the number of printing inks, the image is preliminarily divided with the selection of individual colors or inks.

The basis of prepress processes is color separation. Extracting the constituent colors of a color photograph or other halftone drawing is a tricky job. To perform such complex printing work, electronic scanning systems, powerful computer and software, special output devices for photographic film or plate material, various auxiliary equipment and the availability of highly qualified, trained professionals.

Such a prepress system costs at least 500 - 700 thousand dollars. Therefore, most often, in order to significantly reduce investments in the organization of printing houses, they resort to the services of special reproduction centers. They, having everything necessary to perform prepress work, prepare sets of color separation transparencies on order, from which sets of color separation printing plates can be made in a conventional printing house.
Printing process. Print form is the basis of the printing process. As already mentioned, offset printing is currently widespread in the printing industry, which, despite its almost
100 years of existence, constantly improving, remaining dominant in printing technology.

Offset printing is carried out on printing machines, the principle of operation of which was discussed above.

post-press process. The post-printing process consists of a number of important operations that give the printed prints a marketable appearance.

If sheet editions were printed, then they need to be trimmed and trimmed to certain formats. For these purposes, paper cutting equipment is used, ranging from manual cutters to high-performance cutting machines, designed to simultaneously cut hundreds of sheets of paper of all formats common in practice.

For sheet products, post-press processes end after cutting. The situation is more complicated with multi-sheet products. In order to bend the sheets of a magazine or a book, you need folding equipment on which folding takes place ( from him.false- bend) - sequential bending of printed sheets of a book, magazine, etc.

If you want to make a brochure or a book consisting of separate sheets from printed and cut into separate sheets of prints, they need to be matched one to the other. For this purpose, sheet-collecting equipment is used. When the selection is completed, a thick stack of crumbling sheets is obtained. In order for the sheets to be combined into a brochure or book, they must be stapled. Currently, the most widespread are 2 types of fastening - wire and seamless adhesive. Wire binding is mainly used for brochures, i.e. printed publications from 5 to 48 pages. For fastening with wire staples, booklet makers are used. These devices can be used alone or
in combination with collating systems. More complex work are carried out on special wire stitching machines.

For bonding a large number sheets use adhesive bonding, which is carried out either with the help of "cold" glue - polyvinyl acetate emulsion, or hot melt hot melt adhesive. The spine of the future book edition is smeared with glue, firmly holding the sheets until the glue dries completely. The advantages of this technology are good appearance books, the flexibility and stability of the book block, strength and durability.

In the work of small- and medium-circulation printing houses, there are similar processes. However, as the main printing equipment these printing houses do not use offset machines, and duplicators capable of reproducing both single-color and multi-color copies.

Review questions for the first topic

2. Methods of modern printing.

3. Systems of large- and medium-circulation printing.

4. Systems of small-circulation printing.

5. Milestones printing production.

Theme II
TECHNIQUE AND TECHNOLOGY PHOTOS

The formation of photographic equipment and technology

Photography originally arose as a way of capturing portraits or creating natural images, which took much less time than painting by an artist. The advent of cinema and color photography greatly increased its possibilities, and in the 20th century photography became one of the most important media of information and documentation. The variety of tasks solved with the help of photography allows us to consider it at the same time a section of science, technology and art.

The widespread use of photography in human life determines its diversity. There are photographs in black and white and color, artistic and scientific and technical (aerial photography, microphotography, X-ray, infrared, etc.), planar and volumetric. It is clear that any photographic image in itself is flat, and its three-dimensionality (in particular, in stereoscopic photography) is achieved by simultaneously shooting an object from two close points and then viewing two images at once (each of them with only one eye). Absolutely special kind 3D photography is holography: here the method of recording optical information is different than in ordinary photography.

The origins of photography date back to the late 15th century, when artists, including Leonardo da Vinci, used the camera obscura to project an image onto paper or canvas, which they then sketched.

Photography in the proper sense of the word arose much later. More than three hundred years passed before information about the photosensitivity of certain substances appeared and methods arose for using and preserving changes in such substances under the action of light. Silver salts were discovered and studied among the first light-sensitive substances in the 18th century. In 1802, T. Wedgwood in Great Britain obtained an image on a layer of silver nitrate (AgNO 3), but could not fix it.

The birth date of photography is considered to be January 7, 1839, when the French physicist D.F. Arago (1786 - 1853) informed the Paris Academy of Sciences about the invention by the artist and inventor L.J.M. Daguerre (1787 - 1851) of a practically acceptable method of photography, which he called daguerreotype. However, this process was preceded by the experiments of the French inventor J.N. Niepce (1765 - 1833), associated with the search for ways to fix the image of objects obtained under the action of light. So, the first surviving print of the urban landscape, made with a camera obscura, was obtained by him as early as 1826. Niépce used a solution of asphalt in lavender oil as a light-sensitive layer applied to tin, copper or silver-plated plates. In 1827, he sent a "Note on Heliography" to the British Royal Society, in which he reported his invention, and samples of his work. In 1829, Niépce entered into an education treaty with Daguerre. commercial enterprise"Nieps - Daguerre" to work together to improve their method. Daguerre, continuing the development of Niépce, discovered in 1835 the ability of mercury vapor to show a latent image on an exposed iodized non-silver plate, and in 1837 he already recorded a visible image. The difference in photosensitivity compared to the Niépce process using silver chloride was 1:120.

The heyday of daguerreotype dates back to the 40s - 60s of the 19th century. Almost simultaneously with Daguerre, another method of photography - calotype (talbotype) was reported by the English scientist U.G.F. Talbot (1800 - 1877). He began photographic experiments in 1834 and in 1835 he obtained a photograph using the "photogenic drawing" he had previously proposed. A patent for this method was issued in 1841. In January 1839, upon learning of Daguerre's invention, Talbot tried to prove his priority. His pamphlet A Report on the Art of Photogenic Drawing, or The Process By Which Natural Objects Can Be Depicted Without the Help of an Artist's Brush, was the world's first publication on photography (published
February 21, 1839). A significant disadvantage of "photogenic painting" was the long exposure.

The similarity between the Daguerre and Talbot methods was limited to the use of silver iodide as a photolayer. In the rest of the technology, the methods were very different: in the daguerreotype, a positive mirror-reflecting silver image was immediately obtained, which simplified the process, but made it impossible to obtain copies, and in the Talbot calotype, a negative was made,
with which it was possible to make any number of prints. Those. Talbot's method, representing a two-degree negative - positive sequence of the process, became the prototype contemporary photography.

In the days of Niépce, Daguerre, and Talbot, the term "photography" did not yet exist. This concept gained the right to exist only in 1878, when it was included in the Dictionary of the French Academy. Most historians of photography believe that the term "photography" was first used by the Englishman J. Herschel on March 14, 1839. However, there is another opinion: for the first time this term was used by the German astronomer Johann von Madler (February 25, 1839.).

Along with the development of chemical - photographic processes, Daguerre, Talbot and other scientists worked on the creation and development of photographic apparatus. The first cameras developed by them were of considerable size and weight. Thus, L.J.M. Daguerra weighed over 50 kg. F. Talbot, using lenses with a shorter focal length, was able to make smaller cameras. The Frenchman A. Selye in 1839 designed a camera with folding fur, as well as a tripod and a ball head for it, a light-protective awning, and a packing box in which all the photographer's equipment was placed.

In 1841 in Germany, P.V.F. Feuchtländer made the first metal camera equipped with a fast lens by I. Petzval. Thus, the design of most cameras of that period was a box camera consisting of a box with a tube in which the lens was built in (focusing was done by extending the lens), or a camera consisting of two boxes moving one relative to the other (the lens was mounted on the front wall one of the boxes). The further evolution of photographic equipment for shooting was associated with a wide interest in photography, which led to the development of a lighter and more transportable camera, called a road camera, as well as cameras different types and designs.

Simultaneously with the modernization and improvement of photographic technology, the chemical technology of photography was also developing. Daguerreotype and talbotype are a thing of the past. In the 60s-70s of the 19th century, the wet collodion process, which was proposed in 1851 by the English sculptor F.S. Archer (1813 - 1857). Its essence was that a collodion solution containing potassium iodide was applied to a glass plate immediately before photographing. However, the low light sensitivity of the photo layer, the need to prepare it immediately before shooting, and the fact that such a plate could only be used in a wet state were significant drawbacks of the method, moreover, its use was limited to portrait works in pavilions.

Active developments to increase photosensitivity and create dry photolayers have led to the appearance of dry bromogelatin plates. This discovery was made by the English physician R.L. Maddox (1816 - 1902), who published in 1871 the article "Experiment with Gelatin Bromide" on the use of gelatin instead of collodion as a binder for silver bromide. The introduction of dry silver bromide plates made it possible to divide the photography process into two stages: the production of photographic layers and the use of ready-made photographic materials to obtain negative and positive images.

The 80s marked the beginning of the period of development of modern photography. This was largely facilitated by obtaining photographic materials of sufficiently high sensitivity. Indeed, if with heliography the exposure was six hours, daguerreotype - thirty minutes, calotype - three minutes, wet collodion process - ten seconds, then with the use of silver bromide gelatin emulsion it decreased to 1/100 of a second.

An important role in the development of photography on silver halide photolayers was played by the discovery in 1873 by the German scientist G. Vogel (1834 - 1898) of optical sensitization ( from lat.sensibilis- sensitive). He found that the expansion of the spectral range of sensitivity of the layers can be achieved by introducing into them dyes that absorb light of longer wavelengths than silver halides, which are selectively sensitive only to blue, blue and violet rays, i.e. shortwave rays. Vogel showed that the addition of the yellow-red dye coralline to the emulsion resulted in an increase in sensitivity to green and yellow rays. Spectral sensitization allowed not only to improve the reproduction of colors when photographing, but also became a step in the development of color photography. Thus, by the end of the 19th century, fragile and heavy glass plates were replaced by photographic material with elastic, light and transparent basis inert to chemicals.

American amateur photographer G.V. Goodwin (182 - 1900) became the inventor of photographic film. In 1887 he filed an application for the invention "Photographic film and the process of its production." The creation of photographic film, and then the development by J. Eastman (1854 - 1933) of a photography system using this photographic material, led to changes in the photographic industry, made photography accessible to the mass consumer, both technically and economically. This invention had a very great future. So,
By the 1970s, about 90% of all produced AgHal - photographic materials were photographic films. In the modern range of photographic materials, films are usually negative, papers are positive.

In modern photography, a variant of black and white photography on the AgHal layer, based on the “diffusion transfer” process, has also become widespread. In our country, this process is implemented in the Moment photosystem; abroad, such systems were first developed by Polaroid (USA). The system includes a large-format (frame size 9 x 12 cm) camera, a negative AgHal - photographic film, a multi-purpose processing solution, uniformly applied to the surface of the film when it is rewound in the camera immediately after exposure, and a receiving, positive layer, rolled to the developing negative layer when rewind. Due to the high viscosity of the solution, the processing process is practically dry and allows you to get, without removing the negative film from the camera, a ready-made dried print on the receiving layer in about a minute after shooting.

A special group of processes on AgHal - photolayers are the processes of color photography. Their initial stages are the same as in black and white photography, including the emergence of a latent image and its manifestation. However, the material of the final image is not developed silver, but a combination of three dyes, the formation and quantity of which in each area of ​​the photolayer is controlled by developed silver, the silver itself is subsequently removed from the image. As in black and white photography, there are both a separate negative-positive process with printing of positives either on special color photographic paper or on film, and a direct positive process on inverted color photographs.
materials.

Color photography was a major step in the development of photographic technology. The first person who pointed out the possibility of using color reproduction in photography in 1861 was an English physicist.
J. K. Maxwell. Based on the three-component theory of color vision, he proposed to obtain one or another given color. According to Maxwell, any multi-color image can be subjected to color separation into blue, green and red ranges of the visible spectrum. Then, by additive synthesis, these beams could be projected onto a screen. The results of the experiments showed that, for example, light with a predominance of blue and green rays forms a blue color on the screen, blue and red rays - purple, green and red rays - yellow, blue, green and red rays of equal intensity when mixed give white color.

Color separation and additive synthesis (according to Maxwell) were carried out as follows. The object was filmed on three black and white negatives through blue, green and red glass. Then black-and-white positives were printed on a transparent basis and beams of the same color as the filters used during the shooting were passed through these positives, three partial (single-color) images were projected onto the screen, combining which along the contour a color image of the object was obtained. Additive processes found some use, for example in the first versions of color cinema. However, due to the bulkiness of filming and projection cameras and the difficulty of combining partial images, they gradually lost their practical significance.

The so-called raster method turned out to be more convenient. Colored in blue, green and red, starch grains were applied to rasters, which were located between the glass or film and the photosensitive layer. When shooting, the colored elements of the raster served as color-separating microlight filters, and in the positive image obtained by inversion, they served as color reproduction elements. The first raster photographic materials, the so-called autochromic plates, were produced in 1907 by the Lumiere company (France). However, due to the poor sharpness of the resulting images, insufficient brightness of the bitmap color photography already
in the 30s of the twentieth century, it gave way to methods based on the so-called subtractive principle of color synthesis.

These methods use the same principle of color separation as in additive processes, and color reproduction is carried out by subtracting primary colors from white light. This is achieved by mixing various amounts of dyes on a white or transparent basis, the colors of which are complementary to the main ones - yellow, purple, blue, respectively. So, by mixing magenta and cyan dyes, blue is obtained (purple subtracts green from white, and cyan subtracts red), yellow and magenta dyes - red, cyan and yellow - green. By mixing equal amounts of all three dyes, a black color is obtained. For the first time (1868–1869), the subtractive synthesis of color was carried out by the French inventor L. Ducos du Auron.

Subtractive processes on multilayer color photographic materials are the most widely used in modern amateur and professional cinema - photography and color printing. The first such materials were produced in 1935 by the American firm Eastman Kodak and in 1938 by the German firm Agfa. Color separation in them was achieved by selective absorption of primary colors by three light-sensitive silver halide layers placed on a single base, and a color image was achieved as a result of the so-called color development using organic dyes, the foundations of which were laid by the German chemists B. Gomolka and R. Fischer in 1907 and 1912 respectively.

Color development is carried out with the help of special developers based on color developing substances, which, unlike black and white developing substances, not only convert silver halide into metallic silver, but also participate, together with the color components present in the emulsion layers, in the formation of organic dyes.

Along with the wide distribution of "silver" photographic materials
in photo production, silver-free technologies are also used, which are based on the use of photosensitive layers that do not contain halides or other silver compounds. They use photochemical processes in a substance dissolved in a binding medium, photoelectric processes on the surface of a thin layer of an electrified semiconductor, photochemical processes directly in polymer films and thin polycrystalline layers.

The advantage of non-silver photographic materials is one- or two-stage processing, a short time for obtaining an image on them, high resolution, low cost (4 times cheaper than black and white silver halide). The disadvantages of silver-free materials include low light sensitivity compared to silver halide photographic materials. Most of them are sensitive to light only
in the UV - region of the spectrum, they do not transmit halftones well. For this reason, they are not used for direct photography, and it is impossible or difficult to obtain color images on them. Nevertheless, silver-free photographic materials are used in microfilming, copying and duplicating documents, displaying information, and other areas.

Thus, the sequence of actions for obtaining a photograph includes several stages. The first stage consists in creating on the surface of the light-sensitive layer the illumination distribution corresponding to the image or signal. Under the action of light, chemical or physical changes occur in the photosensitive layer, which vary in strength in different parts of it. The intensity of these manifestations is determined by the exposure acting on each area of ​​the photosensitive layer. The second stage is associated with the amplification of the changes that have occurred if they are too small for direct perception by the eye or device. At the third stage, the stabilization of the arisen or enhanced changes takes place, which allows you to save the received images or recordings of signals for a long time for viewing, analyzing, extracting information from the received image.

Rice. 1.8. Structure of production of electronic, printed media and multimedia products Rice. 1.9. Structural scheme printing technological process

Printing industry is a collection of various technical means and technologies used for printed reproduction of textual and pictorial information in the form of newspapers, books, magazines, reproductions and other printed products.

Printing information presented in the form of text, digital data, tables, mathematical and other formulas is called text information, and illustrations, graphs, diagrams, ornaments, drawings, rulers, maps, and other images are called visual information. Traditionally, a printing company had two separate sections, one of which processed textual information, and the second - pictorial. Combining textual and pictorial information is carried out in the third section, where the layout of a particular publication is carried out.

The basis of the production process in the printing industry is printing. Printing is the repeated receipt of identical prints of text and images by transferring the ink layer from the printing plate to the printed material: paper, cardboard, polymer film, etc.

The carrier of graphic print information is a printing plate, which is, as a rule, a plate or a cylinder, on the surface of which there are printing and non-printing elements.

The printing element is the parts of the form that receive the printing ink and subsequently transfer it to the printed material. Gap elements are areas that do not accept ink on themselves and, therefore, these areas on the printed material will not be covered with an ink layer.

The formation of printing elements on the form can be carried out due to their spatial separation or the creation of various physico-chemical or other properties of printing and blank elements. The printing process is carried out in a printing press, which requires ink and printing material.

In the printing industry, various types of printing are used, but the main ones are three types: letterpress, flat and gravure printing.

Printing forms letterpress(Fig. 1.1, but) have a spatial separation of printing and blank elements: relief printing elements 1 are in the same plane, and blank elements 2 are deepened by a different amount depending on their area. In letterpress printing, the printing elements are covered with an ink layer 3 uniform in thickness (Fig. 1.1, b) and therefore, in all areas of the print, the thickness of the ink layer is almost the same (Fig. 1.1, c)

Printing plates for flat printing ( fig. 1.2) have printing 1 and space 2 elements ( fig. 1.2, a) almost in the same plane, but have different physico-chemical properties: the first are oleophilic (perceive ink), the second are hydrophilic (do not perceive paint).

When applying printing ink 3 (Fig. 1.2, b), it sticks only to oleophilic printing elements. Before each impression is made during the printing process, the form is first moistened with a certain aqueous solution, which wets only the hydrophilic blanks. Since all the printing elements are in the same plane, they are all covered with a layer of ink uniform in thickness and therefore all print elements (Fig. 1.2, c) consist of an ink layer of the same thickness.

Intaglio printing forms ( fig. 1.3) have the same spatial separation of whitespace and printing elements. Printing elements 1 (Fig. 1.3, but) are deepened by different or the same amount. They represent, regardless of the nature of the image (text, illustrations), separate cells of a very small area, which are separated from each other by thin partitions - spaces. These partitions and other gap elements 2 (Fig. 1.3, but) are elevated and are on the same level. Gravure printing plates are usually made on a cylinder.

When printing, low-viscosity ink 1 (Fig. 1.4) is first applied in excess to the entire surface of the rotating form 2. Then a special knife (squeegee) 3, in contact with the surface of the cylinder, completely removes the ink from the gaps and excess ink from the printing elements. As a result, the paint remains only in the cells (Fig. 1.3, c). The form, in contact with the paper, transfers the paint depending on the depth of the cells of the form, and can transfer the paint even in the same layer.

The production of printed products usually consists of three separate but interrelated processes:

1) processing of textual and pictorial information - originals subject to printing reproduction. As a result of this process, negatives or transparencies on a transparent film or immediately finished printing plates are obtained. This stage is called prepress processes and includes a number of technological operations, the composition of which depends on the chosen printing plate manufacturing technology and printing method;

2) printing circulation - obtaining from printing forms a certain amount identical printed sheets or newspapers, which is the reproduction of information. This stage is called the printing process;

3) execution of stitching or stitching and binding processes (manufacturing of books, magazines, newspapers, brochures from individual elements) or, in some cases, finishing processes are performed (varnishing of printing sheets, etc.)

Printing process. The transfer of a colorful image from various printing forms to the printed material occurs, as a rule, as a result of pressure. The material to be printed can be in direct contact with the printing plate or with an intermediate elastic element.

When printing, two cylinders are used, on one of which the printing plate is fixed, and the other provides pressure (Fig. 1.5, a). This ink transfer is typically used in letterpress and gravure printing. In this case, the image on the form must be reversed (mirror) in order to get a “direct” image on the print.

In the case of using an intermediate elastic-elastic (cloth) three cylinders are involved in printing (Fig. 1.5, b).

The printing plate 2 during the printing process transfers the image to the plate 3, which takes on the ink from the printing elements of the form, and then transfers it to the printed material 1. In this case, the image on the printing plate should be direct, and on the rubber-fabric plate it should be reversed, and on paper as a result, we get a direct image.

For the reproduction of textual and graphic information in the printing industry, a wide variety of printing forms are used, which can be classified according to a number of features ( fig. 1.6):

Colors of printed products - forms for single-color (in most cases black and white) printing and multi-color (usually two-, three- and four-color) printing;

Significant nature of information - pictorial forms containing only pictorial information, textual - textual information and text-pictorial, which contain textual and pictorial information;

Types and methods of printing - forms of high, flat offset, gravure and special printing methods;

The method of transferring (recording) information from the original or intermediate information carrier to the form material.

Most printed forms can be divided into two groups: a) forms obtained by formatting information, i.e. simultaneous recording of all points of the image on the form material and b) forms obtained by element-by-element recording of information on the form material sequentially, with very small individual elements.

Printing plates obtained by format recording of information can be produced by photochemical methods (using mainly photographic and chemical processes) and electrophotographic methods based on the use of electrophotography.

In the manufacture of printed forms by element-by-element recording of information, the technique of element-by-element electronic scanning (scanning) of the original information and the formation of printing and blank elements is used, usually due to electromechanical engraving or laser exposure.

IN classic version in the manufacture of printing forms, photochemical processes were most widely used, which made it possible to obtain photoforms from publishing originals. Further, information from them was usually transferred by contact method of copying to form materials.

The processes of making photoforms and the operations preceding them are often called processing (more precisely, processing) of text and pictorial information. Text information processing is a complex of operations, including: editing and typing, proofreading, layout of publication pages, production of publishing text originals, production of photoforms (recording information and chemical-photographic processing). The processing of image information includes two groups of operations: image transformation for the purpose of its printing reproduction and production of photoforms. Depending on the nature of the pictorial originals, the first group may include various operations, but in general they usually include: image scaling and screening, color separation, gradation and color separation correction.

An original for printing publications is a text or graphic material that has undergone editorial and publishing processing and is the basis for creating a printed publication by means of printing.

Originals for printing publications can be divided into three groups:

Publisher's original;

Original layout (reproduced original layout - ROM).

Publisher's original- text or graphic material that has undergone editorial and publishing processing, signed for printing by responsible persons of the publishing house for the production of a printing plate at a printing company.

The original layout is a publisher's original, each page of which coincides with the page future book by the number of lines and by their content. The original layout can be typewritten (printed on a regular office typewriter), signed for typesetting and printing and sent to the printing house for typesetting and printing.

Reproducible original layout(ROM) is an original prepared for the manufacture of a photoplate or printing plate by photomechanical means or by scanning as an image. IN Lately with the spread of computer typing and computer publishing systems, this type of original is widely used for printing short-circulation operational publications (author's abstracts, conference materials, leaflets).

The quality of the original determines the quality of the printed reproduction. Only an impeccable original creates the prerequisites for a good end result. Minor imperfections in the original can be corrected by printing retouching, and any significant interference is fraught with the danger of distorting the image. Therefore, very high demands are placed on the quality of originals for reproduction.

types of originals. In printing processes, there are mainly three types of originals: drawings, photographs and objects. Previously, the main type of originals were drawings, and now 90% of all originals are color photographs.

Drawings. There are two main types of drawings: painting and commercial graphics. Painting is the result of the creative activity of the artist and when creating it, the task of reproducing it by printing methods is not worth it. Therefore, the task of printing is to ensure the maximum identity of the print to the pictorial original. This will be determined by the capabilities of the imaging system and the printing process.

A special place among the drawings is occupied by printing prints that can be used as originals. The raster structure of the print makes special demands on the image processing process.

Commercial graphics are developed immediately with the calculation of further reproduction. In this case, the developer performs it in the color gamut that the playback system can provide.

Photos. The most common type of photographic images are color or black and white transparent originals. The format of such originals varies widely: from 35 mm slides to A4 sheets. A slide is a film that has been exposed in a camera and therefore has distortion determined by the capabilities of the optical system.

Color prints are made from a color negative. In this case, two optical systems are involved: one in the camera, and the second in the magnifier. Therefore, the loss of image sharpness in this embodiment is greater. However, color photographic prints can be produced in a future print format, and this makes it easier to evaluate quality compared to a slide.

At present, the photographic image, presented in electronic or digital form, is increasingly being used.

Goods samples. The most common objects for reproduction are samples of goods: Decoration Materials such as tiles, plastic, paints, etc. Photographing such objects is usually carried out with a studio camera with a digital CCD scanner, which makes it possible to provide high quality playback when printing.

When digitizing images and preparing for printing, the following requirements must be considered:

Technological requirements for the original;

Production requirements (form and printing processes, features of material sealing);

Quality control and evaluation.

In the production of printed products, in addition to generally accepted units of measurement (SI), special units are used to measure certain quantities - typographic units of measurement: author's sheets, printed sheets, etc.

To measure the linear dimensions of printing forms and their individual elements, as well as the formats of the stripes and the size of the lines, typographic units of measurement are used - points and squares.

One typographical point (p.p.) is equal (except for England) to 1/72 of a French inch, i.e. 0.3759 mm, or, rounded, 0.376 mm. The larger unit is 48 kb squared, or approximately 18 mm. These units were proposed in France in the 18th century. In England, the USA and some other countries, 1 t.p. equals 1/72 English inch, i.e. 25.4: 72 = 0.353 mm. In the Russian Federation, the French system of typographic measurements is used.

The paper industry produces sheet paper (in the form of separate sheets) and roll paper (in the form of a tape wound on a sleeve). The paper size is expressed in mm, with the sheet paper size being the product of the width and the length of the paper sheet, for example 600 x 900 mm, and roll papers being measured by the width of the roll. In the Russian Federation, the formats of printed papers are standardized depending on the type of printed products: book and magazine, newspaper, cartographic, etc.

The standard size range of paper for printing book and magazine products in the Russian Federation is established by GOST 1342.

Roll paper, in agreement with the consumer, can also be produced in widths: 360, 420, 640, 820, 1050, 1800 mm; sheet paper can be produced in additional sizes: 600 x 1000, 610 x 860, 700 x 750, 800 x 1000, 900 x 1000, 920 x 1200 mm.

The formats of printed products, as well as the formats of printing, printing and other equipment, are consistent with the paper formats.

The format of the publication determines its size in terms of width and length, expressed by their product in millimeters. The format of book and magazine publications is determined by the size of a block of a book, magazine, brochure cut off from three sides. In this case, the first size indicates the width, and the second - the height of the publication.

Based on GOST 5773-90, the format of publications is indicated by the size of a sheet of paper for printing in centimeters and parts of a sheet (symbol), for example, 60 x 90/16, where 60 x 90 is the size of a paper sheet, and 16 is the number of its shares (parts). Usually for book and magazine publications, the share is equal to a page. Therefore, a 60 x 90/16 paper sheet contains 16 pages on one side and the other, i.e. only 32 pages.

To determine the format of an uncut book and magazine publication, it is necessary to decompose the share of the sheet into two largest factors, and then divide the smaller side of the paper sheet into a smaller factor, and the larger one into a larger one. So the format of publications 84 x 108/32 will be equal before cropping: 84: 4 and 108: 8, i.e. 210 x 135 mm. Since the width of the book is usually less than the height, this format is written as 135 x 210 mm.

The size of the finished publication (or its page) is less than a fraction of its sheet, since the block is cut off on three sides. 3-4 mm along the upper field, 5 mm along the anterior field, and 6-7 mm along the lower field. Thus, the format of the previously considered example after cropping will be 130 x 200 mm.

Newspaper formats are indicated only by the width and height of the strip in millimeters, and sheet publications, depending on the type and format of the main publication, both in millimeters and shares of a paper sheet.

Table 1.1. Standard formats according to GOST 1342

Document without a title

Note: M - machine direction

The formats of book publications must correspond to those indicated in Table 1.1

The original product of information transmission for visual perception is the original. Quite often, the original is the result of the author's work, presented in the form of text, drawings or poetry. To measure the amount of work of the author, as well as publishing workers, the concept of an author's sheet is introduced.

An author's sheet is a unit of measurement for the volume of text and pictorial material. It is equal to 40 thousand printed characters. Printed characters are all visible characters - letters, punctuation marks, numbers, etc. and spaces in between. In the case of a poetic text, one author's sheet is equal to 700 lines of poetic text, and for pictorial material it is 3 thousand selection "> Publishing or publishing sheet - a unit of measurement for the volume of a printed publication (text and pictorial material) and is equal to the same as author's 40 thousand characters, or 700 lines of poetic text or 3 thousand selection"\u003e Printed sheet is a unit of measurement for the volume of printed matter, which includes two concepts: a physical printed sheet and a conditional printed sheet. A physical printed sheet is a paper sheet of any standard size printed on one side, or half of it, but printed on both sides.

Since standard paper sheets differ from each other in area, it is more convenient to use a conditional printed sheet equated to the format of a paper sheet of 600 x 900 mm to determine the total volume of publishing products. Then the reduction of any format to conditional diets is carried out by coefficients that take into account the area of ​​the given sheets. So the conversion factor for the format 600 x 840 mm will be 0.93, and for 700 x 900 - 1.17, etc.

The volume of newspaper publications, as a rule, is calculated in the pages of the main format of newspapers, i.e. A2 (420 x 595 mm) as well as printed sheets.

Edition - a product of printing production that has undergone editorial and publishing processing, printed and intended to transmit the information contained in it.

Circulation - the total number of copies of a particular publication.

Copy - each separate independent unit of this publication.

The total circulation is the sum of the circulations of all, for example, book, magazine and other products issued by the publishing house for a certain period.

Notebook - printed and folded paper sheet. It is a unit of measurement of the amount of work in the performance of some operations of the postpress process. The sheet folding option determines the order in which the strips are placed during certain prepress operations.

The main task of the printing industry is the processing of information and its dissemination. However, in addition to this main task, printing production products also perform many other functions, so the range of these products is very diverse. It is very difficult to develop a clear classification of printing products, primarily because of its diversity.

Printed products can be conditionally divided into five groups, taking into account its purpose:

1) publishing products that serve mainly as a means of information;

2) label and packaging products, which are mainly a means of packaging (labels, packaging, etc.);

3) business products (various forms, technical documentation, etc.);

4) special products(monetary paper notes, shares, certificates, postage stamps, letterheads government documents and many others);

5) products and semi-finished products, which are later used in other industries and industries (wallpaper, prints with texture various materials and many others).

Of all the products of the printing industry, the most widespread is publishing.

Currently, publishing products have a lot of highly competitive different types of information (radio, television, and much more). However, publishing products are very convenient for use, have a greater safety, a fairly low cost of reproduction, and are more acceptable to the general population.

Publishing products can be classified in many ways. However, the most commonly recognized are the following five signs:

1) by material construction - book, magazine and sheet editions. Sheets include: newspapers, posters;

2) according to the symbolic nature of information - text editions, art editions, cartographic, musical, etc. general view according to the symbolic nature of information, all publications can be reduced to three types: text (contain only text), pictorial (contain only images) and text-pictorial (include text and images);

3) according to the frequency of publication:

Periodicals issued after a certain period (week, month, etc.), i.e. a constant number of issues for each year and at the same time the same type of design (magazines, newspapers);

Non-periodical publications issued once without the terms of reprinting provided for them (books, brochures);

Continuing publications issued at indefinite intervals as materials accumulate (collections of scientific papers, etc.);

4) by purpose and nature of information - official and scientific publications, monographs, literary and artistic publications, textbooks, workshops, encyclopedias, production publications.

IN different countries world printing industry in terms of production in value terms is from 1 to 12% of the volume of production of the manufacturing industry.

IN developed countries the volume of the printing industry is 0.5-4% of the gross domestic product, and in developing countries it can be at the level of 20%. In different countries, the volume and importance of the printing industry varies widely. For example, the US printing industry as an industrial sector ranks sixth, which determines its economic significance for the country. In the entire volume of world production of printing products, its various types occupy a different specific gravity. currently dominated by commercial products. The distribution of the world market volume for certain types of products is characterized by the following data: books - 7%, newspapers - 16%, magazines - 9%, catalogs - 4%, packaging labels - 18% and advertising and letterhead products - 46%.

A non-periodical printed publication of more than 48 pages is considered a book, and an edition of more than 4, but not more than 48 pages, is considered a brochure. The basis of the book is book block B, which is enclosed in cover A. Books can also be issued in covers. A book block consists of several notebooks or sheets fastened together in a spine in one way or another.

The outer elements of the block. These elements include: spine, flyleaf, captal, spine material, trimmings and ribbon bookmark.

The spine is the left end side of block B (Fig. 1.7, a), along which notebooks or sheets of the book are fastened. Depending on the type of design, straight, round and mushroom-shaped roots are distinguished.

The flyleaf is two four-page sheets of paper selection "\u003e Kaptal K (Fig. 1.7, b) is used to more firmly connect notebooks in a block, as well as an element for decorating books of medium and large volume. Kaptal is a fabric braid with a thickened colored edge, which glued to the top and bottom edges of the cut book block.

Spine material formula" src="http://hi-edu.ru/e-books/xbook842/files/for4.gif" border="0" align="absmiddle" alt=", which increases the bonding strength of the block with the lid.

Edges are called the end sides (front, top and bottom) of the book block and to improve the design of the book and to prevent contamination, they are sometimes painted over. The front edge, depending on the shape of the spine of the block, can be straight or concave.

ribbon bookmark L facilitates the use of the book. It is made of braid, one end of which is attached to the upper part of the spine of the block, and the ribbon itself is inserted into the block and goes beyond the edge of the lower edge.

Internal elements of the book block. In addition to the body text pages, a book block can have the following additional elements:

Title page T (fig. 1.7) is the first output page of the book. Basically, a single (two-page) title page is used. On the title are placed: the title of the book, the surname and initials of the author, the name of the publishing house (issuing company), the place and year of publication, and some other information.

Sometimes a title page is used, consisting of two adjacent pages of a book spread. This is used in multi-volume, serial or specially designed editions. The design of the title page can be font, decorative font or illustrated.

A Schmutztitle is a page with an unsealed back before a title that protects it from damage. In essence, this is an additional title page, on the odd page of which large headings, illustrations or various book decorations are placed.

The frontispiece is an illustration of the selection "> The initial or descending page is the first page of the book or its constituent parts(chapters, sections). The text on it usually starts with some indentation from the top edge. This place can be filled with an ornament or a picture-saver for the decoration of the book.

The end strip is the last strip of a book or section, chapter. Usually it is not completely filled with text. On the free part of the strip, an ending in the form of an ornament or a pattern can be placed.

All other stripes are ordinary and can contain only text or an image, or be text-pictorial.

In addition to the main elements, additional reference elements are also placed on the strips: column numbers, footer, signature and norms.

The column number defines the serial number of the page and can be in the middle or on the side of the bottom or top margin of the page.

A header or footer is a line placed on the top (or bottom) margin of a page with the title of a section or topic in a book. It makes it easier for the reader to use the book.

Signature - a number that determines the serial number of the notebook in the book block. Next to the signature, the norm is printed - a line of text with the author's surname or the short title of the book. These elements are necessary for the correct completion of notebooks in a book block and they are placed on the first page of the bottom margin of each notebook.

Around the strip are unprinted margins that improve the readability of the book and protect the edges of text and images from damage. The margins are determined by the layout of the book.

The journal is one of the periodicals. Journals are very diverse in their readership. Most of the journals are designed for a wide range of readers, but there are also special scientific and industrial journals designed for the professional reader. Currently, advertising magazines occupy a significant volume. The magazine differs from the book in its periodicity and efficiency of production, wide subject matter and variety of articles, as well as highly artistic design. In general, journals differ from each other in purpose, frequency, specialization, volume, design, design, and other features. Unlike books, the cost of publishing magazines is partly offset by advertising revenue. Magazines have short term use.

Many magazines have large circulations and their production differs significantly from the technology of book production. As a rule, a magazine consists of folded notebooks, fastened by sewing with wire or glue and covered with a cover. The circulation of the magazine determines the printing option and, as a rule, sheet-fed or web offset machines are used. In the case of mass runs, it is economically feasible to use gravure printing machines.

Large format magazines require a different design of the pages. The text on the strip is arranged in several columns, there are no leading and trailing strips, and the outer and inner sides of the cover are printed with text and graphic material.

Illustrations on the pages can be placed under the "bleed".

Newspapers - periodicals containing current information, official materials, articles on topical socio-political, scientific, industrial and other issues. Newspapers can carry advertisements, include literary works, and more. In addition, newspapers of purely advertising content may be published. Newspapers usually consist of separate sheets of large format, matched in a set. Newspapers are published on strictly fixed days of the week and time of day. The volume of newspapers varies quite widely. In the Russian Federation, newspapers are published in three formats: A2 (main), equal to 420 x 594 mm, A3 - half of A2, equal to 297 x 420 mm and A4 - quarter of A2, equal to 210 x 297 mm. Unlike books, there is only one page format for each newspaper format. So, for example, for A2 newspapers, the page format is 21.5 x 30.5 square meters, i.e. 387 x 549 mm. A newspaper page usually consists of text and images. The text on the page is arranged in the form of columns, the number of which depends on the format of the newspaper (from four to eight). The most used line format is from 2.5 to 4 square meters. The newspaper is distinguished by a wide variety of headings and headings, typed in fonts of various designs and sizes.

For printing newspapers, rotary high-performance newspaper complexes are used, which ensure the speed of issuing a newspaper with good performance in terms of efficiency. At present, newspaper complexes also provide multi-color printing of newspapers with good economic indicators. The advertising part of the newspaper covers a significant cost of publishing the newspaper, which makes it possible to reduce the price of its copy for the reader and makes it accessible to a significant mass of the population. The most significant categories of newspapers are daily and weekly.

The brochure is a non-periodical publication, from 5 to 48 pages, in soft cover, in the form of bound and stapled sheets of printed material.

Brochures are now widely used for brochures, descriptions and various consumer products. The volume of brochures is small and they are published in very small circulations. However, to certain types Brochures, especially advertising-oriented ones, have very high quality requirements. Most brochures come in multiple colors and come in folded sheets or bound notebooks. The costs of producing brochures are reimbursed directly by the customers.

Other printed matter mainly relates to packaging and various types of promotional items. Packaging can be made from various materials: paper, cardboard, metal, plastic, etc. Printing on packaging is carried out by all known methods, and the choice of printing type is mainly determined by the packaging material used.

Electronic media were widely used at the end of the 20th century and are of great importance in the field of information dissemination. In 1995, the latter occupied a niche of 30% in the print and electronic media market. Trends recent years show that electronic media have sustainable growth at the level of 9% per year, and the printed media have an increase of 3% per year. As a result, by 2010 the volume of printed and electronic media services will equalize. The intensive introduction of electronic media is ensured through the powerful use of computer technology and the Internet. High efficiency and the possibility of obtaining a large amount of information on any issue favorably distinguishes electronic media from printed ones. Radio and television, familiar to all of us, new forms of video and audio information using compact discs (CD-ROM and DVD-ROM) significantly expand the scope of electronic media.

Technological, technical and design capabilities of electronic media are very high. A traditional recording of a conventional film recorded on film can be converted into a video film. Any book can be presented also in electronic version. Information in the form of a web page using a computer can be presented both in real and virtual space.

Electronic media can be distributed both on long-term storage media (CD-ROM, video film, audio recording) and in real time (transmission of a concert, theatrical performances, etc.).

Output devices can be computer monitors, television screens, various types of projection devices, audio playback systems, etc. Of course, special software is also needed.

Multimedia are computer-oriented methods of presenting information using a combination of different components: text, image, animation, graphics, video, audio, etc. As the most accessible example, this is a book with an attached CD-ROM.

In multimedia, information is presented in a complex form and with the simultaneous use of several channels for its creation.

A CD-ROM laser disc may not always be a multimedia product. By itself, CD-ROM is only a medium that can carry various information (text, sound, video, etc.). A CD-ROM becomes a multimedia product only when it combines text, sound and animation. Different types of information on the Internet become a multimedia product only after they are linked together. A generalized structure for the production of electronic, printed media and multimedia products is presented in rice. 1.8

The Computer to Plate process is widely used because it has a high level of automation, is very fast, provides high quality printing and economic indicators approaching the Computer to Film process.

With this method, the printing plate itself is exposed, and the production of a color print is carried out in 6 stages, including printing.

The most efficient way is Computer to Press. It is carried out in 4 stages thanks to the application digital technology. In this method, electronic information is directly transferred to the printing plate, which is located in the printing press.

Prepress

The production process of printed products is divided into three stages: pre-press, printing processes and post-press processing.

Pre-press preparation covers the stages of work, starting from the idea of ​​​​design, preparation of text information, graphic originals and graphics, and ending with the production of ready-made printing forms that are used to print the circulation.

The content and the professional graphic design of printed materials are also the basis for publications in the field of electronic media, such as Internet homepages or in CD ROM format. Therefore, in addition to the concept of "prepress processes", the concept of pre-media preparation appeared - premedio. This term refers to the digital preparation of text and images suitable for output to any final storage medium. As shown in fig. 1-1, the actual pre-press processes may be preceded by a pre-media preparation stage.

Significant changes have taken place in pre-press processes associated with the transition from traditional to digital technologies. Nevertheless, during a short transitional stage, the photoform as a carrier of information is still used by many enterprises. The book describes both prepress technologies and traditional prepress processes.

Set Technology

The initial information for the set is the author's manuscript. The unambiguity and absence of errors in the text are more important than the formal and aesthetic aspects of its design. Necessary proofreading is best done when preparing the manuscript. For the purpose of unification, the correction must be carried out in accordance with the instructions governing it (for example, in accordance with DIN 16511 or ISO 5776).

Entering text is the first step in the kit production process (Section 1.1). Increasingly, this work is done by the author. Since the hardware and software for processing text data on a computer is very diverse, a printing house may have a problem of compatibility of data arrays obtained from different sources. Therefore, printing companies must have a large number of programs (import filters) to convert documents received in different digital formats into a form acceptable for further processing. After entering the text, its processing follows, which implements the design features specified by the layout, such as choosing the font and its size, line lengths, windows for the subsequent inclusion of illustrations, etc. . Features of the layout are set by the author and the publisher or agreed jointly by the author, the publisher and the printing house.

After processing, text output follows (Section 1.2). Decorated text blocks are displayed on film or paper. In this form, they are subject to imposition, i.e., they are combined with halftone images and graphics, and, as a result, imposition stripes are obtained. If the layout of text and graphic information is performed electronically, then the finished strip is displayed on film or paper. The digital data of the strips is a necessary starting point for further output processes, for example, computer-photoform, computer-printing plate and DI digital printing, etc., or for use in electronic means information.

Correcting an exposed set is a laborious and costly process and should be avoided whenever possible. For this reason, in the process of work, before the text is output to photographic films, plate material or printed in a digital machine, proofreading is repeatedly performed by printing digitally processed text on paper. Author's proofreading is carried out in proofs delivered to the author. After the proofreading, the layout of the strips follows. The correct placement of illustrations, the location of captions, the presence of footnotes, links to other pages, headers and footers and columns are the main subject of the proofreading process during layout.

Manuscript

In the classical sense, a manuscript is a handwritten text that, in a printed form, should appear on a print. The fewer errors in the manuscript and the more clearly it is written, the faster and more error-free the subsequent input by the operator of its content from the keyboard can occur. The author must hand over the manuscript to the printing house in finished form. After that, no significant additional changes should be made to the content.

Today's software tools allow for a variety of text preparation and processing. With their help, it is easy to type tables, graphs, figures into text. With the help of software tools, good results in text manipulation can be achieved by non-professionals, which for the most part are authors. Currently, the printing house receives printouts of the text on paper and media with its electronic version.

Entering text

At an enterprise or organization that produces printed materials (most often in a publishing house or in a prepress department), before typesetting, the manuscript first goes to proofreading. At this stage, the necessary corrections are made in the manuscript, as well as technical guidelines for typesetting are added, font sizes are determined for the body text, headings, emphasis, footnotes and installation instructions regarding illustration insertions, paragraph indents, etc.

At the stage of text input, it is converted into digital data in the computer. Text entry is performed primarily from the keyboard, but also through OCR technology (optical reading) or, less commonly, through speech input.

Keyboard input

Text is entered using the keyboard as infinite text until the end of a paragraph or the appropriate typeface. Row splitting is not performed at first. This creates a prerequisite for automatic "justification" of the text, which means receiving lines in the form of segments of a given length. In addition, the text in the proofreading process can automatically "flow", i.e. the line, starting from the corrected place, is switched off and then will correspond to the specified format. The process goes all the way to the end of the paragraph. The keyboard used to enter text is part of the peripheral equipment of computers.

Today, one of the most commonly used word processing programs is Microsoft Word. With its help, the texts typed and stored on the data carrier can then be used without any problems in technological process. Other packages are also known, such as Word Perfect and Macintosh Word. For typing scientific texts with formulas and special characters, especially suitable software products TEX.

Instructions for the design of the text should be limited in the manuscript to the characteristics of headings, paragraphs, the order of illustrations, if they are placed in a certain place in the text, as well as the necessary markup for the beginning of a new page (preferably on the right).

The author can transfer the text to a publisher or printer via a data network (for example, via e-mail via the ISDN network). This saves time and increases the relevance of information. Communications serve mainly for communication between the author and the publisher. To do this, data formats, protocols and interaction interfaces are defined.

Entering with optical methods(OCR)

With the help of OCR technology (Optical Character Recognition - optical character recognition), the text presented in handwritten or typewritten form is converted into digital form and thus becomes suitable for processing. First, in the "display process" of a document on paper, it is entered by optoelectronic reading systems. The document appears as a bitmap. In the future, the bit structure of the sign is converted into a text code.

During the reading process, the document is scanned and described by a certain matrix structure. The brightness and color values ​​of each dot of the matrix are recorded in digital form. Black and white documents are described by one bit of information per image point when they are scanned. When scanning color originals in 4 colors, up to 32 bits per dot must be used. The resolution of the scanning devices determines how closely the scanned image matches the original. For most text originals, a resolution of 300 dpi allows for high reliability of character recognition when using OCR processes (type size starting at about 4 mm, depending on the legibility of the font elements). Illustrations and text in small size fonts require a reading resolution of 600 dpi. For digital representation of an image, the TIFF (Tagged-Image File Format) format is usually used. The OCR process covers 5 steps:

identification of text and illustration blocks with the exception of the latter;

recognition of a sign by analyzing its shape and comparing it with the characteristic features of the standard; word identification using arrays of dictionaries;

correction of unrecognized words or characters by displaying them on the screen with confirmation or correction by the operator;

formatting data in one of the output formats, such as ASCII, Word, RTF or PDF, and writing data for saving (data formats).

As a result of using the OCR method, textual information is converted into digital data suitable for subsequent computer processing, like text entered from a keyboard.

OCR technology is most often used to recognize typewritten author's originals, to create databases of reprinted books available only in the form of previous editions. The error rate of OCR equipment is less than 1%. If the original is dirty, the characters are poorly printed, or there are spots on the original, the number of errors increases. In such cases, keyboard input may be more effective. The criteria for choosing one or another recognition method are the fonts of the original, the required recognition speed, the volume and quality of the dictionary, the data formats used and, of course, the price. Currently common OCR software products are, for example, Omni-PagePro (Caere Corp.), Optopus (Makrolog GmbH), Adobe Capture (Adobe Systems).

Modern printing technology includes three main stages, without which no printing house can do: prepress, press and postpress processes.

The prepress production process ends with the creation of an information carrier from which text, graphic and illustrative elements can be transferred to paper (printing form production).

The printing process, or printing proper, produces printed sheets. For their production, a printing machine and a carrier of information prepared for printing (printing form) are used.

At the third stage of the printing technology, called the post-printing process, the final processing and finishing of the sheets of paper (prints) printed in the printing machine are carried out to give the resulting printed products a marketable appearance (brochure, book, booklet, etc.).

Prepress process. At this stage, one or more (for multi-color products) printing plates for printing a certain type of work should be obtained.

If the print is single-color, then the form can be a sheet of plastic or metal (aluminum), on which a drawing is applied in a direct (readable) image. The surface of the offset form is processed in such a way that, despite the fact that the printing and non-printing elements are practically in the same plane, they perceive the ink applied to it selectively, providing an impression on paper when printing. If multi-color printing is required, then the number of printing forms must correspond to the number of printing inks, the image is preliminarily divided with the selection of individual colors or inks.

The basis of prepress processes is color separation. Extracting the constituent colors of a color photograph or other halftone drawing is a tricky job. To perform such complex printing work, electronic scanning systems, powerful computer and software, special output devices for photographic film or plate material, various auxiliary equipment, as well as the availability of highly qualified, trained specialists are required.

Such a prepress system costs at least 500 - 700 thousand dollars. Therefore, most often, in order to significantly reduce investments in the organization of printing houses, they resort to the services of special reproduction centers. They, having everything necessary to perform prepress work, prepare sets of color separation transparencies on order, from which sets of color separation printing plates can be made in a conventional printing house.

Printing process. The printing plate is the basis of the printing process. As already mentioned, offset printing is currently widespread in the printing industry, which, despite its almost
100 years of existence, constantly improving, remaining dominant in printing technology.

Offset printing is carried out on printing machines, the principle of operation of which was discussed above.

post-press process. The post-printing process consists of a number of important operations that give the printed prints a marketable appearance.

If sheet editions were printed, then they need to be trimmed and trimmed to certain formats. For these purposes, paper cutting equipment is used, ranging from manual cutters to high-performance cutting machines, designed to simultaneously cut hundreds of sheets of paper of all formats common in practice.

For sheet products, post-press processes end after cutting. The situation is more complicated with multi-sheet products. In order to bend the sheets of a magazine or a book, you need folding equipment on which folding takes place ( from him. falzen - bend) - sequential bending of printed sheets of a book, magazine, etc.

If you want to make a brochure or a book consisting of separate sheets from printed and cut into separate sheets of prints, they need to be matched one to the other. For this purpose, sheet-collecting equipment is used. When the selection is completed, a thick stack of crumbling sheets is obtained. In order for the sheets to be combined into a brochure or book, they must be stapled. Currently, the most widespread are 2 types of fastening - wire and seamless adhesive. Wire binding is mainly used for brochures, i.e. printed publications from 5 to 48 pages. For fastening with wire staples, booklet makers are used. These devices can be used alone or
in combination with collating systems. More complex work is performed on special wire stitching machines.

To fasten a large number of sheets, adhesive bonding is used, which is carried out either with the help of “cold” glue - polyvinyl acetate emulsion, or hot melt hot melt adhesive. The spine of the future book edition is smeared with glue, firmly holding the sheets until the glue dries completely. The advantages of this technology are the good appearance of the book, the flexibility and stability of the book block, strength and durability.

In the work of small- and medium-circulation printing houses, there are similar processes. However, as the main printing equipment of these printing houses, not offset machines are used, but duplicators capable of reproducing both single-color and multi-color copies.

1. Manuscript acceptance

First of all, the publishing house must establish rules for the preparation of manuscripts for their authors and publish them. In any case, the author should know about them before submitting his manuscript to the publisher. Among the requirements for the author at this stage: the number of submitted copies of the manuscript, the rules for formatting the text (best immediately in accordance with OST 29. 115-88 Author's originals and publishing texts. General technical requirements), if necessary, documents related to the specifics of the text - An examination report on the absence in the text of information disclosing state or other secrets protected by law, any letters, certificates, reviews. The manuscript is registered in a special journal, the author is issued a receipt of acceptance. A “case” is started on the manuscript, the first document of which is a receipt for its receipt, and the second is a card of the movement of the manuscript

2. Preliminary study and evaluation of the manuscript

The manuscript accepted by the publisher is reviewed Chief Editor and submits to the editorial office dealing with this topic. The publishing house specialists (editor, editorial manager, editor-in-chief) at the first viewing or selective reading of the manuscript come to a common opinion as to whether this manuscript corresponds to the subject matter and creative plans of the publishing house in principle. 3. Reviewing manuscripts

Manuscripts that have undergone editorial preparation (see paragraph 2) and included in the publishing house's preparatory plan are subjected to a deeper, more thorough evaluation, which should finally decide on the issue of publication. For this, the manuscripts are peer-reviewed.

4. Thematic planning

Manuscripts that have passed the stage of internal and external review are included in the thematic plan for the release of literature.

A literature release plan is a publishing document containing a list of books, brochures or other products intended for publication during the next calendar year.

The literature release plan includes the following information: the author (surname, initials), the title of the work, an annotation containing brief information about him and the potential readership, the volume in printed sheets, the quarter of publication, sometimes the planned circulation.

5. Production planning

Basic indicators production activities include:

Number of titles (titles) of books or other units of publishing products,

The number of accounting and publishing and printed sheets per year,

Average volume of published books,

Average circulation.

6. Literary editing

Editing is a multi-valued concept, in our case it is a part of the publishing process, the content of which is work on the manuscript of a work in order to improve it in literary, linguistic, professional, scientific, social terms.

Initially, the lead editor works on the manuscript, improving composition, style, spelling and punctuation, etc.

7. Scientific and special editing

This stage is not obligatory, in some cases it may not occur, but often, when more thorough editing is required in terms of professional or scientific subtleties, the specifics of the text, it is carried out by specialists working in the publishing house or invited to perform this work.

8. Proofreading

Proofreading (from the Latin correktura - correction, improvement) is a stage in the production process of publishing books. newspapers, magazines and other printed materials, on which various errors and shortcomings made during editing and typing are eliminated. Proofreading is a very important publishing process designed to eliminate errors, typos, misprints and other shortcomings that reduce the perception of the text in a finished, published work. Proofreading of the same work is carried out first on the manuscript, then, after typing, on proofreading. reprints and, finally, the proofreader reads the finished signal copy of the book in order to identify errors before releasing it to the public.

9. Artistic and technical editing

After proofreading the manuscript (and often before), work begins on decoration And technical editing works. At this stage, the art editor, together with the author and the lead editor, decide on issues related to the placement, nature and number of illustrations, cover design, title page, flyleaf(a sheet of paper placed between the binding and the title page). If the publication is richly illustrated, an artistic layout is required. The work is attended by artists who, in accordance with their specialization, perform one or another part of the design.

Along with artistic editing, technical editing is carried out, the content of which is the choice of font size and typefaces, the use of rulers and other printing elements, the placement of text and illustrations on each page.

10. Preparing the manuscript for typesetting

Work on the manuscript in the publishing house - editing of all kinds, proofreading, artistic and technical editing in total lead to the creation of an original layout prepared for transfer to the printing house. A specialist in the production department, most often a technical editor, brings together all corrections, comments, marks, puts together illustrations and other materials accompanying the manuscript, draws up a technological specification accompanying an order for printing.

It is produced in a printing house in one of the ways, in accordance with the technology of a printing company, or in a publishing house, on a computer complex. At present, the practice of preparing a typed-up original in a publishing house is widespread. Then the printing house produces only printing and subsequent production processes.

After typing, prints, regardless of technology, including computer ones, are transferred to Production Department and lead editor. The first impressions after typesetting, called proofreading impressions, are read simultaneously by the editor, proofreader and author, after which all corrections and possible changes are brought together by the proofreader and transferred to the printing house or computer operator in the publishing house. If typesetting is carried out in a printing house, then, as a rule, the proofreader of the printing house also reads the proofs.

12. Print

After correcting the proofreading (if necessary, it is duplicated, the so-called “second proofreading” is done, and even the “third proofreading” - if a large number of mistakes are repeated), the printing house starts printing the circulation of the produced edition. To do this, the final version of the proof, signed by the editor-in-chief (or director) of the publishing house and the author with a “printing” visa, is submitted to the printing house with the final specification of the circulation number, paper type, etc. At the same time, the cover is made in this or another (due to the specifics) printing house and what - any other elements, such as colored inserts, dust jacket, etc.

13. "Clean sheets". signal instance.

The sheets printed for the entire volume and circulation are stapled without a cover and transferred to the publishing house for control (the professional term is “blank sheets”). Sometimes after this, and often even instead of “blank sheets”, several copies of the already bound, finalized edition are transferred to the publishing house.

14. Production of circulation

After receiving from the publishing house a signal copy with a visa "to the world", the printing house prints the entire circulation of the ordered products, which is reported to the customer, who must resolve the issue of its distribution immediately, due to a shortage of production space.

15. Distribution of circulation