Topic: Types, causes and indicators of international labor migration

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University: VZFEI

Year and city: Moscow 2011

Option number 12

Work plan

Control theoretical question

1. Types, causes and indicators of international labor migration.

Under international labor migration(MTM) is understood as moving labor resources between countries and their use beyond national borders within a certain time for the purpose of employment on more favorable terms than in the country of origin, determined by the ratio of supply and demand in the labor market. How the MTM process is a unity of immigration, emigration, re-emigration.

The subjects of MTM are emigrants- persons traveling from the territory of this country abroad, and immigrants- persons entering the territory of this country from abroad. Labor migration involves the return of an emigrant to his country - re-emigrant.

Depending on the various factors affecting labor migration, and from the point of view of compliance with the norms of the legislation in force in world practice, the following classification of forms of migration has developed work force

by directions:

Migration from developing and former socialist countries to industrialized countries;

Migration between industrialized countries;

Migration between developing countries;

Migration of skilled labor from industrialized to developing countries;

Migration from developing countries to former socialist countries;

By territorial coverage:

Intercontinental;

Inland:

a) between states;

b) between macro-regions;

by time:

Final (permanent or irrevocable) - associated with a change in permanent place of residence;

Temporary (returnable):

a) short-term (the migrant is up to 1 year outside his usual place of residence);

b) long-term (more than 1 year);

Temporary labor migration can be in the nature of periodic movements (caused by recurring reasons, for example, seasonal), or pendulum - associated with the daily movement of part of the population to the place of work, study and back;

according to the degree of legality:

Legal - being in the country legally;

Illegal - illegal border crossing;

based on the:

Voluntary - due to the voluntary adoption by an individual or a group of people of a decision to migrate;

Forced - caused by military, political events, non-ethnic and religious persecution, which force the population to change their place of residence;

Forced - forced resettlement of people organized by the state (deportation).

The cumulative movement of a population across national borders forms migration flows. There are five types of streams:

1. IDPs (persons moving for permanent residence);
2. Contract workers (low-skilled personnel);
3. Professionals (highly qualified and experienced workers;
4. Illegal immigrants;
5. Forced migrants (natural disasters, wars, environmental disasters). (1, p. 288)

Objective economic reasons displacement of the labor factor:

1. The excess of the actual unemployment rate over its natural

indicator increases labor migration.

1. Level difference wages. If the country has an excess of labor resources, this creates an incentive for emigration.
2. The presence in the national economy of excess labor resources entails their outflow to other national economies.
3. Activities of TNCs (Transnational Corporations). Formation of migration flows to branches of TNCs.
4. different levels economic development individual countries. The labor force moves from countries with lower GDP per capita to countries with higher living standards.

TO non-economic reasons include political, national, religious, racial, family and other conditions leading to migration, which is often spontaneous, sudden and even massive.

One of the motives for participation in international labor migration may be the search for any job, so as not to "starve to death". This reason is most typical for the migration of low-skilled labor from countries with a low level of economic development and high unemployment. It takes place mainly from Asian and African countries to countries Western Europe, from Latin American countries to the USA and Canada, from Southern and Eastern Europe to the more developed countries of Western Europe.

In industrial developed countries ah, an important motive for migration is the search for a specific job for the purpose of self-expression, “social comfort” in the country of immigration, socio-cultural and psychological living conditions, etc. The economic reasons for migration are also present here, but they have a different meaning: for example, a high level of taxes, etc.

The intensification of migration processes observed in recent decades is expressed both in quantitative indicators, and in quality: the forms and directions of movement of labor flows are changing. To assess the scale of labor migration, the following are used:

• Scale of disposals - the number of emigrants who left the country abroad for a certain period in order to find a job;
• Arrival scale - the number of immigrants who arrived in a country in a given period of time in search of work;
• Balance of migration (net migration) - the difference between the number of arrivals and the number of departures in the country, region for the period under consideration.
• Gross migration - the sum of the number of arrivals and departures in the country, region for the period under consideration.

most acceptable quantitative indicators intercountry movement of labor resources are indicators recorded in balance of payments. As in other cases, a non-resident is an individual who has been in the country for less than a year. If a person stays in the country for more than a year, then for the purposes of statistical accounting, he is reclassified as a resident. In balance of payments statistics, indicators related to labor migration are part of the current account balance and are classified under three headings:

. Labor income(labor income), compensation of employees - salaries and other payments in cash or in kind received by non-resident individuals for work performed for residents and paid for by them. This category also includes all contributions made by residents to pension, insurance and other funds related to the employment of a non-resident. Non-resident individuals include all foreign workers staying in a given country for less than a year, including seasonal workers, workers from border countries who come to this country for temporary work, as well as local staff of foreign embassies.

. Migrant movements(migrants` transfers) - the estimated monetary equivalent of the value of the property of migrants, which they carry with them when moving to another country. At the same time, the export of property of emigrants in kind is shown as an export of goods from the country, and its estimated monetary equivalent (as if payment for this export) is shown under this article.

. Employee transfers(workers` remittances) - the transfer of money and goods by migrants to their relatives who remained in their homeland. In the case of shipment of goods, their estimated value is taken into account.

IN modern conditions MTM is characterized as a natural global socio-economic phenomenon that has deep roots in the economic, social, and political spheres.

Control test tasks

/tick correct option(options) response as follows: /

1. Regional integration associations are:

e) the World Bank;

Rationale for the answer:

The main subjects of international relations (IR) are the state (represented by the government and state-owned enterprises), national economies (firms), regional integration associations, international corporations and supranational financial and economic institutions. Of the subjects of the MO proposed above, to regional integration associations(megablocks) are primarily - European Union EU, APEC Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation, NAFTA North American Free Trade Association and ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations.

The IMF, WTO, ILO, World Bank are complex international economic organizations that coordinate the international economic activity economic ties and rules foreign economic activity. Of these, financial - the International Monetary Fund of the IMF and the World Bank; trade - WTO (World trade Organization); and the organization that regulates international labor migration ILO - International Labor Organization.

2. The main external sign of the existence of the world market for goods and services is:

a) the presence of foreign sellers and buyers;

b) the presence of external demand and supply;

c) the existence of the world economic space;

d) movement of goods and services between countries

e) presence of an international trade organization;

f) occurrence international competition.

Rationale for the answer:

The main elements of the structure of the world market for its objects are: market for goods and services, the capital market, the labor market, as well as the market for scientific and technical developments and information. The most important form of realization of the world market is the world market of goods and services, which can be represented by international trade. The external sign of trade is movement of goods and services between countries.

The world market as a whole is a form of organization and functioning of the world economy. The basis of the world market is the international division of labor (MRI) and mutually beneficial exchange. Availability external supply and demand stimulates international trade. Demand and supply for exported and imported goods in the world market is always balanced. Supply and demand is the root cause of the international exchange of goods and services, and the emergence of international competition is already the development (consequence) of international barter transactions.

Task

A map of supply and demand for Swiss francs is given

in the table.

1. Draw an equilibrium graph for the Swiss foreign exchange market.

2. What is the equilibrium exchange rate of the Swiss franc? What is the equilibrium exchange rate for the dollar?

3. How many Swiss francs will be bought at the equilibrium rate? How many US dollars will be bought at the equilibrium rate?

4. If the franc exchange rate is set at $0.40 per franc, what will be observed in the foreign exchange market? What actions should the Central Bank take to ensure the equilibrium of the foreign exchange market?

Solution:

2. The equilibrium exchange rate of the Swiss franc corresponds to the value of 0.6 dollars per franc. The equilibrium exchange rate of the dollar is 1:0.6 = 1.67 francs.

3. At the equilibrium rate, 340 million francs will be bought. The number of US dollars at the equilibrium rate will be 340 * 0.6 = 204 million dollars.

4. Depreciation to the level of 0.4 dollars per franc will stimulate the export of Swiss goods, as they will become cheaper and the demand for them from foreigners will increase. The consequence of this will be an increase in demand for francs. A decrease in the equilibrium exchange rate is called currency depreciation. The central bank, in order to maintain the exchange rate of the franc, will redeem a certain amount of them for dollars, which will ensure the equilibrium of the foreign exchange market.

Bibliography

1. Nikolaeva I.P. UNITI World Economy, Moscow, 2007

2. Basovsky L.E. World Economy: A Course of Lectures - M.: INFRA-M, 2005

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international trade in services, international movement goods and capital

International economic relations

The classification of services is based on the international standardized industrial classification adopted by the United Nations and recognized in most countries of the world. In accordance with it, all the following goods are considered services:

Utilities and construction

wholesale and retail, restaurants and hotels

Transportation, storage, communication and financial intermediation

Defense and compulsory social services

Education, Health and Public Works

Other communal, social and personal services

Most of them are indeed produced and consumed exclusively within the national framework, that is, in terms of international economy is non-tradable.

Both trade in goods and trade in services, along with some other items, are included in the current account of the balance of payments of any country. Negotiations on the liberalization of trade in services are being conducted in parallel with negotiations on the liberalization of trade in goods. However, there are qualitative differences between goods and services and their trade (Table 1).

It is because of the intangibility and invisibility of most services that trade in them is sometimes referred to as invisible exports and imports. Moreover, unlike goods, the production of services is often combined with their export under the same contract and requires a direct meeting between their seller and buyer. However, in this case, there are numerous exceptions. For example, some services are quite tangible (a printed consultant report or computer program on a diskette), are quite visible (a model haircut or a theatrical performance), can be stored (telephone answering service) and does not always require direct interaction between the buyer and the seller (automatic issuance of money in a bank using a debit card).

Services are divided into:

Factor services - payments arising in connection with the international movement of factors of production, primarily capital and labor (income on investments, royalties and investment payments, wages paid to non-residents;

Non-factorial services - other types of services (transport, travel and other non-financial services).

This division is especially important for discussing regulatory issues. international trade services under the GATT/WTO, which focus primarily on non-factorial services.

It is also obvious that the provision of services in most cases occurs simultaneously with the sale of goods or investments in a particular country. Therefore, in accordance with the methods of delivery of services to the consumer, services are divided into:

Services related to investments - banking, hotel and professional services;

Services related to trade - transport, insurance;

Services related to investment and trade at the same time - communications, construction, computer and information Services, personal, cultural and recreational services.

So, services represent a change in the position of an institutional unit that has occurred as a result of actions and on the basis of a mutual agreement with another institutional unit. Unlike goods, the production of services is often combined with their export under one contract and requires a direct meeting between their seller and buyer. At the same time, either the seller comes to the buyer, or the buyer to the seller, or they move towards each other. An increasing number of services become tradable goods and are recorded in the current account of the balance of payments of any country.

INTERNATIONAL SERVICE TRANSACTIONS ($ billion)

World trade in services (in billions of dollars)

Structure of world exports of services, 1993 (billion dollars)

A - freight transport services

B - other transport services

C - trips

D - other services provided by government organizations

E - other services provided by the private sector

2. INTERNATIONAL MOVEMENT OF GOODS

The main external sign of the existence of the world market is the movement of goods and services between countries.

International trade is the sphere of international commodity-money relations, which is a set of foreign trade all countries of the world.

International trade consists of two counter flows of goods - exports and imports and is characterized by a trade balance and trade turnover.

According to internationally accepted international trade statistics standards, the key element for recognizing trade as international, the sale of goods as export, and the purchase as import, is the fact that the goods cross the customs border of the state and record this in the relevant customs reporting. At the same time, it does not matter whether the product of the owner changes or not.

Export and import are two key concepts characterizing the international movement of goods, which are used for a comprehensive analysis of international trade and for practical purposes.

The world market is the sphere of the international balance of supply and demand for goods exported and imported by countries;

The size of exports is determined by the size of the excess supply of goods, the size of imports - by the size of the excess demand for goods;

The fact of the presence of excess supply and excess demand is established in the process of comparison of internal equilibrium prices for the same goods in different countries taking place in the international market;

The price at which international trade is carried out is between the minimum and maximum domestic prices equilibria existing in countries prior to the start of trade;

On the one hand, a change in the world price leads to a change in the quantity of exported and imported goods leads to a change in the world price.

Thus, the world market has become a natural result of the development of domestic and national markets based on the division of labor of goods that have gone beyond state borders. It is a sphere of stable commodity-money relations between countries based on the international division of labor and other factors of production. The world market is manifested through international trade, which is a combination of foreign trade of all countries of the world and consists of two counter flows of goods - exports and imports. The simplest model of the world market, called the partial equilibrium model, shows the main functional relationships between domestic demand and supply and demand and supply of goods on the world market, determines the quantitative volumes of exports and imports, as well as the equilibrium price at which trade is carried out.

3. INTERNATIONAL CAPITAL MOVEMENT

The international movement of capital as a factor of production takes on specific and various forms.

According to the sources of origin, the capital in motion on the world market is divided into official and private capital.

Official - funds from the state budget, transferred abroad or received from abroad by decision of governments, as well as by decision of intergovernmental organizations. This category of capital movement includes all government loans, loans, gifts, assistance that are provided by one country to another country on the basis of intergovernmental agreements. The source of official capital is the state budget, that is, in the end, taxpayers' money.

Private - means of private firms, banks and other non-governmental organizations, moved abroad or received from abroad by decision of the governing bodies and their associations. This category of capital flows includes capital investments abroad by private firms, the provision of trade credits, and interbank lending. The source of this capital is the funds of private firms that are not related to the state budget. But, despite the relative autonomy of firms in making decisions about the international movement of their capital, the government usually reserves the right to regulate and control it.

According to the nature of the use of capital is divided into:

Entrepreneurial - funds directly or indirectly invested in production for the purpose of making a profit. Private capital is most commonly used as entrepreneurial capital, although either the state itself or state-owned enterprises may also invest abroad.

Judicial - funds loaned for the purpose of obtaining interest. Internationally, official capital from public sources is used as loan capital, although international lending from private sources also reaches very impressive levels.

According to the investment period, capital is divided into:

Medium-term and long-term - capital investments for a period of more than 1 year. All investments of entrepreneurial capital in the form of direct and portfolio investments, as well as loan capital in the form of government loans, are usually long-term.

Short-term - investment of capital for a period of less than 1 year. Predominantly loan capital in the form of trade credits

According to the purpose of investment, capital is divided into:

Direct investment is an investment of capital with the aim of acquiring a long-term economic interest in the country of capital investment, which ensures the investor's control over the object of capital placement. They are almost entirely associated with the export of private entrepreneurial capital.

Portfolio investment - capital investment in foreign securities that do not give the investor the right to real control over the investment object. Such investments are also predominantly based on private entrepreneurial capital, although the state often issues its own and purchases foreign securities.

Item Description: "International Economic Relations"

In the subject of international economic relations includes the study of two most important components: the actual international economic relations and the mechanism for their implementation International economic relations include a multi-level complex of economic relations between individual countries, their regional associations, as well as individual enterprises (transnational, multinational corporations) in the world economy. International economic relations as a science studies not the economy of foreign countries, but the peculiarities of their economic relations. Moreover, not any economic relations, but only the most frequently repeated, typical, characteristic, defining relations. The mechanism of international economic relations includes legal regulations and tools for their implementation (international economic treaties, agreements, "codes", charters, etc.), the relevant activities of international economic organizations aimed at achieving the goals of developing international economic relations Avdokushin E.F. International economic relations: Proc.

allowance. - M.: Marketing, 1996. - 196 p.

Avdokushin E.F. International Economic Relations: Textbook. - M.: Jurist, 1999

Literature

1. D. Kardava. Is Network Marketing a Pyramid? Scam? Or... A system for distributing goods and services. – M.: PROMIS International, 2002. – 304 p.
   
2. S.V. Kotelkin, T.G. Tumarov, A.V. Kruglov, Yu.V. Mishalchenko. Fundamentals of international monetary and financial and creditor relations. Textbook. – M.: Infra-M, 1998. – 432 p.
   
3. IN AND. Gagarinov. Russia in the global process of movement of capital and labor. - M.: ASA, 2007. - 208 p.
   
4. Edited by L.I. Ushvitsky, A.A. Mazurenko. International Accounting and Financial Reporting Standards. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2009. - 160 p.
   
5. Edited by I.P. Nikolaeva. World economy. – M.: Prospekt, 2010. – 240 p.
   
6. World economy. – M.: Prospekt, 2011. – 240 p.
   
7. M.I. Shakhparonov. Methods for studying the thermal motion of molecules and the structure of liquids. - M.: Publishing house of Moscow State University, 1963. - 281 p.
   
8. Yu.V. Piskulov. International trade in goods and services. Russia in the WTO. - M.: GOUVPO VAVT of the Ministry of Economic Development of Russia, 2013. - 104 p.
   
9. T.A. Kuzovkova, T.Yu. Salyutina, O.I. Sharavova. Infocommunication statistics. Textbook. - M.: Hot Line - Telecom, 2015. - 554 p.
   
10. Popova L.I. Organization of customs control of goods and vehicles. Textbook for universities. – M.: Yurayt, 2016. – 311 p.
    
11. Kuznetsova G.V., Podbiralina G.V. International trade in goods and services. Textbook for undergraduate and graduate students. – M.: Yurayt, 2017. – 433 p.
    
12. G.V. Kuznetsova, G.V. Picked up. International trade in goods and services. Textbook and practice. In 2 parts. Part 1. - M.: Yurayt, 2017. - 282 p.

The main external sign of the existence of the world market is

movement of goods and services between countries. international trade(international trade) - the sphere of international commodity-money relations, which is a set of foreign trade of all countries of the world. In relation to one country, the term "foreign trade of the state" is usually used, in relation to the trade of two countries among themselves - "interstate, mutual, bilateral trade", and in relation to the trade of all countries with each other - "international or world trade».

Often, international trade is understood as trade not only in goods, but also in services. Services are also goods, but often they do not have a materialized form and differ from goods in a number of parameters, which will be discussed below.

International trade consists of two counter flows of goods - exports and imports and is characterized by a trade balance and trade turnover.

Export - sale of goods, providing for its export abroad. Import- the purchase of goods, providing for its import from abroad. trade balance- the difference between the value of exports and imports. Trade turnover- the sum of the cost volumes of exports and imports.

According to internationally accepted international trade statistics standards, a key element for recognizing international trade, selling goods as exports, and buying goods as imports, is the fact that the goods cross the customs border of the state and record this in the relevant customs reporting. At the same time, whether the product of the owner changes or not - it does not matter. For example, if a computer is sold (and, in fact, transferred) by the American division of IBM to its Russian division, it is considered a US export and a Russian import, even though the American company IBM remains the owner of the goods. In balance of payments theory, on the contrary, the change of ownership is decisive, and the sale of Russian raw materials to an affiliate of an American enterprise located in Russia will be considered Russian exports, although the raw materials did not cross the border.

Export and import are two key concepts that characterize the international movement of goods, which are used for a comprehensive analysis of international trade and for practical purposes. The trade balance and turnover, as their derivatives, have a narrower analytical and practical value and are used less frequently.

The most common type of transactions such as the sale of goods is the usual trade between counterparties of different countries, i.e. foreign trade, which consists of export and import operations. At the same time, export operations are understood as the sale and export of goods abroad to transfer it to the ownership of a foreign partner. On the contrary, import operations involve the purchase and import of foreign goods for their subsequent sale in the domestic market of their country. Export-import operations can be both direct and indirect, i.e. carried out both by the owners of the goods and by intermediaries. The role of the latter can be brokers, dealers, commission agents, consignees, wholesale customers, industrial agents. Intermediaries take on numerous functions for the sale of goods. For example, they can search for foreign partners, prepare documents and complete a transaction, transport and forwarding operations, credit and financial services and insurance of goods, after-sales service, market research, advertising, customs formalities and other activities. In addition to export-import operations in the practice of international economic relations, such special forms of foreign trade as bidding, auctions and exchanges are also used to sell goods.

A variety of export-import operations are re-export and re-import operations. Re-export - This is the export abroad of goods previously imported into a given country that has not undergone any processing in it. Re-export operations are possible in the most different situations. First, re-export arises as a natural continuation of the trading operation. The seller imports the goods into the country for sale on the exchange or auction, but it can be sold to the buyer from a third country and exported.

Secondly, re-export may appear due to a break in the normal course of the sale of goods. If the seller sent the goods to the buyer, but the latter, for some reason, cannot pay for it, then he seeks to resell the goods to another buyer in this country or in a third country. The departure of goods to a third country is re-export. This is a forced re-export. Thirdly, it is also possible to perform a re-export operation without prior importation of goods from abroad, since they can be sent to a new buyer, bypassing the re-export country. trading firms many major countries often resort to operations for the resale of goods, using for profit the difference in prices for the same product. In addition to firms engaged in net re-exports, the country also benefits from the transportation of re-exported goods carried out with the help of its vehicles, from insurance, credit and other intermediary operations. And, finally, fourthly, re-export operations also arise during the construction of large facilities with the help of foreign firms. Practice shows that a foreign supplier often purchases certain types materials and equipment in third countries and sends them to the construction site without being brought into the country of re-export. Re-export operations without importation into the country of re-export, in fact, are not exports of this country, but they are taken into account by customs statistics and therefore belong to the class of re-export operations.

Re-exported goods are generally not processed. However, minor work can be done that does not change the name of the product: changing the packaging, applying special markings, supplying cans with keys, etc. But if the cost of additional processing of the goods exceeded half of its export price, then according to trade practice the product changes its name and is no longer considered re-export, and operations for its sale become export. For example, many Russian non-ferrous metallurgical corporations currently work on tolling, that is, they process imported ore into metal. Since the process of smelting non-ferrous metals is very energy-, water- and labor-intensive, it is not the metal itself that is exported, but cheap domestic electricity and other resources.

Concerning re-import operations, their existence is associated with the import from abroad of previously exported domestic goods that have not been processed there. They can be products that could not be sold at auctions, returned from a consignment warehouse, rejected by the buyer, and others.

Along with the usual export-import transactions for the sale of goods, each of which ends with the receipt or payment of a sum of money for an export or import product, so-called barter transactions are widely used in the practice of international economic relations. or counter-trade. Countertrade includes transactions for the sale of goods, when there are counter obligations of exporters to purchase products from importers for a part or the full value of the exported goods. The whole variety of counter transactions, depending on the organizational and legal basis or the principle of compensation, can be divided into three groups: barter transactions on a non-currency basis, trade compensation transactions on a monetary basis and industrial compensation transactions.

The nominal value of international trade is usually expressed in US dollars at current prices and is therefore highly dependent on the dynamics of the dollar exchange rate against other currencies. The real volume of international trade is the nominal volume converted into constant prices using a chosen deflator. In general, on present stage(before the crisis) the nominal value of international trade had a general upward trend.

The main volume of international trade came to developed countries, although their share was somewhat reduced at the beginning of the 21st century due to the growth in the share of developing countries and countries with economies in transition. The main growth in the share of developing countries occurred due to the rapidly developing new industrial countries of Southeast Asia (Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong) and some Latin American countries.

In most cases largest exporters are also the largest importers in the world market.

The most significant trend is the growth in the share of trade in manufactured products, which by the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st centuries accounted for about 3/4 of the value of world exports, and the decrease in the share of raw materials and foodstuffs, which accounted for about 1/4.

This trend is typical for both developed and developing countries and is a consequence of the introduction of resource-saving and energy-saving technologies. The most significant group of products within the manufacturing industry are equipment and vehicles(up to half of the export of goods in this group), as well as other industrial products - chemical products, ferrous and non-ferrous metals, textiles. Within the framework of raw materials and food products the largest commodity flows are food and beverages, mineral fuels and other raw materials, excluding fuel. The growth rate of international trade consistently exceeds the growth rate of world industrial production; the growth rate of international trade of developing countries is on average higher than the growth rate of international trade of developed countries. Industrialized countries account for about 2/3 of world exports by value, while developing countries, including countries with economies in transition, account for about 1/3 of world exports. In the commodity structure of world exports, more than 2/3 are products of the manufacturing industry, and its specific gravity increases, and about 1/3 - for raw materials and food products.

Russia was characterized by an increase in the value of exports.

The main factor in the increase in the value of exports was the increase in world prices for oil and other major export goods(for oil and gas). Both Russia's specialization in the export of raw materials and the dependence of its economy on exports have intensified. About 75% of the export volume fell on the products of the fuel and energy complex and metallurgy. Export of raw materials amounted to approximately 35% of GDP, all exports - about 40%. Such ratios are typical for a developing country, whose economy is completely dependent on income received from the supply of raw materials to the external market. This is the position Russia is in. This was evident during the industrial recovery of the last ten years, based mainly on the growth of foreign exchange earnings from energy exports. The fall in the price of oil opened up the prospect of an economic downturn for the country.

The outdated fleet of industrial equipment leaves no hope that in the near future Russia will be able not only to expand, but even to restore its former, rather modest position as an exporter of engineering products and other industrial products of a high degree of processing. All the more urgent is the need for structural restructuring of the country's economy, without which it is difficult to claim a more advantageous position in the world market.

In the last 4-5 years, the economic recovery and a sharp increase in foreign exchange earnings gave a good chance for this. However, due to the onset of the global financial crisis, these opportunities, as such, are currently missed.

In 2001-2009 the position in the country's economy was largely determined by the state of its exports. However, the prospects for its development largely depend on the action of random, external factors, among which the main one is the level of demand and prices for the main goods of Russian exports, primarily oil. Influenced by the decline in world prices for oil and other commodities, which Russia specializes in, the value of exports declined.

Accordingly, the volume of imports increased. This led to a contraction in the trade surplus of the Russian Federation, however, the volume of deliveries to foreign markets will remain significant, and the trade balance will remain positive, and yet the contribution of exports to growth Russian economy decreased, and the reduction of the trade surplus will inevitably lead to a deterioration in the economic situation of the country and a slowdown in the growth of foreign exchange reserves of the Russian Federation.

The world economy is a set of national economies of the countries of the world that are in close interaction and interdependence through international economic relations.

Subjects of the world economy: states; international organizations of various levels; international financial centers; national enterprises of various levels; transnational companies; individuals.

Stages of formation of the world economy:

1. 15th-18th century - the division of labor, the development of production, as a result of which there was a need to develop new territories, enter new markets;
2. Late 18th-early 19th century - industrial Revolution, which led to mass large-scale production;
3. Late 19th century - 50-60s. 20th century:

Late 19th century-20s 20th century (monopolistic associations are being created, the struggle for the territory of trade is intensifying);

30-50s of the 20th century (“the world economic crisis”, after which there was a scientific and technological revolution and new industries appeared);

60-80s 20th century (the collapse of the colonial system, the formation of a large number of independent states in Africa, Asia, Latin America; the European Union is formed);

4. late 20th century - up to the present time (labor migration, a single global information space, the integrity of the financial system).

1. Correlation of concepts: world.market, international trade, world.trade

International trade - the sphere of international commodity-money relations, which is a combination of foreign trade of all countries of the world.

In relation to one country, the term "foreign trade of the state" is usually used, in relation to the trade of two countries among themselves - "interstate, mutual, bilateral trade", and in relation to the trade of all countries with each other - "international or world trade". Often, international trade is understood as trade not only in goods, but also in services.

1. World economy: concept, subjects, objects, structure

The world economy is a multi-level, global economic system that unites the national economies of the countries of the world on the basis of the international division of labor through the system of international economic relations.

In general, the world economy can be defined as a set of national economies and non-state structures, united international relations. The world economy arose thanks to the international division of labor, which entailed both the division of production (that is, international specialization) and its unification - cooperation.

Object of the world economy: world (world) economy.

Subjects of the world economy: states; international organizations of various levels; international financial centers; national enterprises of various levels; transnational companies; big businessmen.

The subjects of the world economy can be divided into three levels depending on the functions and tasks they perform.
1. The level of business entities, i.e. various firms and organizations - micro level.
2. State level (macro level), i.e. the level of action of various government agencies and organizations. At this level, by adopting various regulations, an environment is formed in which business entities operate, i.e. the rules for conducting foreign economic activity, the circle of possible participants, the tax policy in this area are determined; the foreign economic policy of the state is formed.
3. Interstate level - i.e. the level of action of various interstate organizations that determine the basic rules of relations on issues of foreign economic relations, developed in agreement with the member states of these organizations.

The structure of the world economy consists of the following major substructures: sectoral, reproductive, territorial and socio-economic.

Industry structure is the ratio between different industries in an economy.

The reproductive structure is the ratio between various types use of productive GDP.

Territorial structure - the ratio of the economy of various countries and territories.

Socio-economic structure is the relationship between different socio-economic structures.

1. International economic relations

International economic relations are, in a broad sense, a system of economic relations between the national economies of individual countries, represented by various economic entities, as well as international economic organizations and financial centers.

The development of international economic relations depends on a number of factors:

a) natural factors (natural-climatic, demographic);

b) acquired factors (production, scientific and technical, political, social, national-ethnic, religious).

The main forms of international economic relations:

International trade in goods;

International trade in services;

International specialization and cooperation of production;

International scientific and technical cooperation and exchange of scientific and technical results;

International movement of capital, international monetary and credit and financial relations;

International labor movement;

International information exchange;

Activities of international economic organizations and cooperation in solving global problems.

Sometimes the forms of international economic relations also include international economic integration (the highest level of the international division of labor, resulting from the deepening of international specialization and the unification of the national economies of a number of countries).

The objects of international economic relations are primarily goods and services circulating in international trade.

IEO subjects: states; international organizations of various levels; international financial centers; national enterprises of various levels; transnational companies; individuals.

1. MT methods: commodity exchanges, international auctions, international trades.

International Commodity Exchanges - a permanently operating large wholesale market on which, according to certain rules, purchase and sale transactions are made for mass, qualitatively homogeneous and interchangeable goods.

Members of commodity exchanges are, as a rule, individuals, representing industrial or trading companies that produce or trade goods traded on the exchange. Brokers are hired to mediate transactions. They act on behalf and at the expense of third parties, receiving commissions for their services. The invited guests are the last group of exchange trade participants. They can make deals with the help of exchange members or brokers.

The goods that are traditionally the subject of exchange turnover include:

Vegetable products (grain, sugar, coffee, cocoa, tea, spices);

Animal products (live cattle, meat, eggs, lard);

Industrial raw materials and products of its processing;

Metals, as well as products and semi-finished products from them.

The exchange commodity must be homogeneous, it must be suitable for standardization, it must not spoil quickly, the demand and supply for the exchange commodity must be massive.

International auctions are a specially organized permanent market where purchase and sale transactions are carried out through targeted competition between buyers.

Goods sold at auctions are mass and single, but their common feature is the heterogeneity of batches or individual copies, i.e. they cannot be bought without a preliminary inspection of the sold unit of goods (lot).

At auctions, goods accepted from sellers are sorted according to their quality into batches (lots), a sample is taken from each batch, and a number is assigned to the lot. A catalog is then produced and sent to potential buyers who arrive at the auction early to inspect the item. Bidding at auctions is carried out either with an increase in price or with a decrease (“Dutch auction”). Auction bidding with a price increase can be conducted "by voice" or using gestures. In the first case, the auctioneer announces the lot number and names the initial price, asking: "Who is more?". If the next price increase is not offered, then after asking three times: “Who is more?” - the lot is considered sold to the one who named the previous price. In a price reduction auction, the auctioneer lowers the price by predetermined discounts. The lot is purchased by the buyer who first says "yes".

Bidding is a method of concluding contracts of sale or a contract, in which the buyer (customer) announces a competition on the day of sellers (contractors) for goods with predetermined technical and economic characteristics and, after comparing the received offers, signs a contract of sale or a contract with that seller ( contractor), which offer more favorable conditions for the buyer (customer).

Various equipment is purchased through tenders, trucks, railway rolling stock, ships and other vehicles, communication equipment, etc.

Bidding can be open and closed (tender).

Bidding stages:

1. Preparation (initiator - Government, state or private organization; preparation and organization is carried out by the Tender Committee);
2. Preparation and submission of proposals by bidders;
3. Evaluation of proposals of participants and award of contracts.

1. World market: concept, elements, conjuncture, factors, features.

The world market is a synthetic concept that unites the markets of all countries of the world into a single whole. At the same time, the world market combines international trade in goods and services, international movement of capital, international movement of labor and international information exchange.

The main features of the global market:

1. It is based on the development of a market economy;
2. The world market is manifested in the interstate movement of goods and services, the main factors of production under the influence of the ratio of supply and demand;
3. The world market plays a sanitizing role; eliminates all unnecessary.

Acting as a sphere of interstate exchange of goods, the world market has a reverse effect on production, showing it what, how much and for whom it is necessary to produce. In this sense, the world market turns out to be primary in relation to the producer and is the central category of the theory of international economics.

The main external sign of the existence of the world market is the movement of goods and services between countries.

The main external sign of the existence of the world market is movement of goods and services between countries. The world economy is made up of national-state economies that are in constant and mutual economic connection with each other. The world economy must be regarded as an objective result of economic growth, the result of an immanent desire social production to the most positive economic effect, as a result of the interaction of factors driving the production of material goods. Hence, world economy is a global economic organism in which the interconnection and interdependence of all countries and peoples of the planet have developed and are growing. It is characterized by the increasing internationalization of productive forces, the creation of a diverse system of international economic relations, and the formation of international mechanisms that regulate economic exchange between countries. The growing and strengthening integrity of the modern world is objectively expressed in the world economy. strategic direction of the foreign economic policy of the Russian Federation is the further integration of Russia into the world economic community in order to maximize the use foreign economic relations to implement a long-term restructuring of the Russian economy. However, in modern system Russia participates in world economic relations so far mainly due to the expansion of trade in goods, mainly raw materials and materials. Russia is poorly involved in international production cooperation, trade in services, international capital migration in the form of direct investment.
The Russian economy turned out to be dependent on the export of a narrow range of goods, primarily the fuel and raw materials group, as well as on the import of many consumer goods. The degree of its openness at a certain stage ceased to correspond to the internal capabilities of the country, the scale and depth of the problems facing it. In this regard, in order to solve the problems of stabilizing the growth of the national economy, taking into account the trends in the development of the world economy and trade, as well as ensuring the equal integration of Russia into the world economy, it is necessary to ensure the implementation of the following main objectives:
- increasing the competitiveness of the Russian economy;
- maintaining Russia's position in world commodity markets (raw materials, materials, complete equipment, weapons and military equipment), as well as further expansion of exports finished products and services; ensuring equal conditions for the access of Russian goods and services to world markets with adequate protection of the domestic market from unfair foreign competition in accordance with the established practice of international economic relations; pursuing a customs tariff policy that contributes to the creation of favorable conditions for expanding national production and increasing its competitiveness, without worsening the conditions for competition in the domestic market;
- reducing capital flight through foreign trade channels by creating more favorable economic conditions in Russia, as well as tightening control over the implementation of export-import operations, including currency and customs control.

International financial (economic) organizations(IFIs) are created by pooling financial resources by participating countries to solve certain problems in the development of the world economy. These tasks can be:
. operations in the international currency and stock market with the aim of stabilizing and regulating the world economy, maintaining and stimulating international trade;
. interstate loans - loans for the implementation of state projects and financing of the budget deficit;
. investment activities- lending in the region international projects(projects affecting the interests of several countries participating in the project both directly and through resident commercial organizations);
. charity(financing of international assistance programs) and financing of fundamental scientific research. As examples of international financial institutions can be called the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the International Financial Corporation. The IMF and the World Bank are legally separate organizations with different purposes, although they originated at the same time. The main task of the World Bank is to promote sustainable economic growth leading to the reduction of poverty in developing countries.
Objectives of the International Monetary Fund:
Intergovernmental monetary and credit organization for the promotion of international monetary cooperation on the basis of consultations of its members and the provision of loans to them.
1. To promote the development of international cooperation in the monetary and financial sphere within the framework of a permanent establishment.
2. To promote the process of expansion and balanced growth of international trade, as well as the development of the productive resources of all Member States, considering these actions as the priorities of economic policy.
3. Promote currency stability, maintain an orderly exchange regime among member states, and avoid using currency devaluations to gain competitive advantage.
4. To assist in the creation of a multilateral system of settlements for current transactions between member states, as well as in the elimination of foreign exchange restrictions that impede the growth of world trade.
5. By temporarily providing the general resources of the Fund to Member States, subject to adequate guarantees, to create a state of confidence in them, thereby enabling them to correct imbalances in their balance of payments without resorting to measures that could harm national or international welfare.
6. In accordance with the above - to reduce the duration of imbalances in the external balance of payments of the member states, as well as to reduce the scale of these violations.

IBRD (International Bank for Reconstruction and Development). The Bank, as a specialized agency of the United Nations, is part of the United Nations system. Goals:
1) promoting the reconstruction and development of the territories of the Member States by encouraging investment for industrial purposes;
2) encouragement of private foreign investment and, in addition to private investment, if it is difficult to secure, the provision financial resources for production purposes;
3) stimulation of long-term balanced growth and assistance in maintaining the equilibrium of the balance of payments by encouraging international investment to develop the productive resources of the Bank's member states.
IFC (International Finance Corporation). Goals:
1) Promoting the economic growth of the member countries by encouraging entrepreneurship in the manufacturing sector, i.e. at the micro level, thus complementing the activities of the IBRD;
2) pooling Money used by the Fund to provide loans to Member States in financial difficulty;
3) strengthening the role of the calculation basis for the Fund's determination of the amount of loan that can be extended to a contributing member, or the amount that it can receive during periodic allocations of special funds, known as special drawing rights;
4) determining the number of votes granted to each Member State.