The most common forms of integration are corporate associations formed as a result of mergers, and so-called “soft” associations in the form of entrepreneurial alliances and networks.

Corporate associations

The main reasons causing the need for mergers and the creation of corporate associations are:

Globalization and the accompanying growth in the size of companies in the market, creating obstacles for independent work small firms;

Preempting, by merging, the actions of competitors aimed at absorbing a given company;

A company’s defensive reaction when a threat arises from the market (decrease in sales volume or nature of demand).

Financial and industrial groups (FIGs)

FIGs represent type of corporate association, in which enterprises and organizations connected by property, financial, production, technological and management relations take part. In our country, the formation of financial industrial groups is carried out on a legislative and legal basis and is aimed at: concentrating investment resources on priority areas economic development, accelerating scientific and technological progress, increasing the export potential and competitiveness of products of domestic enterprises, implementing progressive structural changes in the country's industry, forming rational technological and cooperative ties in a market economy, developing a competitive economic environment.

Operating in Russian Federation Financial industrial groups carry out large investment projects, counteract the decline in production, and contribute to monetary stabilization. In addition, financial industrial groups make up for the mechanisms of intersectoral redistribution of resources that were missing during the perestroika period and create real conditions for reliable supplies and sales that meet the quality requirements. The merger of enterprises and organizations into a group strengthens foreign economic positions in world markets, where many transnational corporations are most often organized as financial-industrial-trading complexes with powerful potential.

Entrepreneurial networks and alliances

An important form of enterprise integration is entrepreneurial networks and alliances(they are also called alliances, partnerships, business networks), uniting organizations of different sizes and forms of ownership. This is a fairly stable, flexible structure that allows organizations to coordinate their actions and increase their competitiveness. In network alliances, there is a shift in emphasis from considering a firm as an independent economic unit that forms its development strategy based on the coordination of internal resources with the state of the external environment, to analyzing the system of interacting firms as a single market entity. In the interests of network development, partners can mobilize and share resources belonging to individual organizations. When forming a management strategy, each organization is faced with the fact that, on the one hand, some resources and activities, usually considered internal, practically cannot be controlled by it; at the same time, resources and activities previously considered external actually form an integral part of the organization itself and are subject to its influence and control. Thus, the activities of each participant are integrated into the network and are defined by it as a holistic entity. If these conditions are violated, the union is dissolved, which is often found in the practice of relationships between organizations.

Especially great benefits come from entrepreneurial unions of companies united in clusters(translated from English this is “group, cluster, concentration, bush”) in certain territories that provide them with certain competitive advantages(for example, the necessary infrastructure, communications and telecommunications, equipped production areas, etc.). For this purpose, large industrial zones located in cities or other administrative-territorial units and having free capacity due to the restructuring of the domestic economy can be used. This is where it is beneficial to create clusters of companies in which, from the very beginning, a critical mass of professionalism, art, infrastructure support and information relationships between companies in a certain field (area) of activity can be concentrated. Such areas that unite companies into unions can include: production of household goods; various industries related to healthcare, production of household products, etc. As foreign experience shows, when a cluster is formed, all production facilities in it begin to provide mutual support to each other, the free exchange of information increases and the dissemination of new ideas and products accelerates through the channels of suppliers and consumers who have contacts with numerous competitors.

Virtual corporation

One of the newest organizational forms is virtual corporation, which is a network of independent companies (suppliers, customers and even former competitors) created on a temporary basis, united modern information systems for the purpose of mutual use of resources, reducing costs and expanding market opportunities. The technological foundation of a virtual corporation is made up of information networks that help to unite and implement flexible partnerships through “electronic” contacts.

Main conditions effective management a virtual corporation becomes: confidence people to each other as a powerful factor in business development, competence participants and the creation of informal teams from qualified specialists, the formation of a general missions.

According to many leading management experts, the development of network connections between organizations may result in a revision of the traditional boundaries of enterprises, since with a high degree of cooperation it is difficult to determine where one company ends and another begins.

There is a tendency in the Russian economy to expand the scale of industrial integration. Industrial integration is proceeding in several directions:

♦ increasing participation in the capital of enterprises to ensure full control;

♦ expanding the scope of integration processes in medium and large businesses;

♦ strengthening the processes of horizontal and conglomerate integration.

It is quite difficult to unambiguously assess integration processes in industry. On the one hand, integration allows one to overcome the limitations imposed by the institutional and competitive environment. Industrial integration provides stronger external incentives for the development of monopolists and the elimination of bottlenecks (in the technological aspect) in industrial cooperation.

On the other hand, this leads to a number of problems. The costs of “captures” in industry can be:

♦ transfer pricing (with integration from above), violation of the interests of shareholders and regions;

♦ low interest in resource conservation of raw materials (with integration from below);

♦ worsening conditions for competition;

♦ ousting shareholders from captured enterprises, using bankruptcy procedures both to seize and to increase their participation in capital.

Thus, in the Russian economy there is a tendency to expand the scale of industrial integration. Buying up shares of partners in the technological chain was a fairly common practice during the period of mass privatization. Enterprises implementing an active strategy are faced with the task of both ensuring the quality of suppliers' products and controlling their prices. Participation of the enterprise in the financial and industrial group, as well as participation in its capital of Russian banks and foreign companies is directly related to the scale of the business and is more typical for large businesses. The seizure of dominant enterprises in itself stimulates consumers of their products to choose the same aggressive strategy in order not to find themselves in dependent conditions for supplies or sales. The consequence of the capture and replacement of a top manager is often a noticeable “drift” of the captured enterprise towards the implementation of an active business reform strategy and the implementation of technological re-equipment measures.

After the Second World War in all developed countries In the West, a system for integrating the globalization of world capital has emerged and developed. The United States has strengthened its economic and military power. State intervention in the economy expanded (development of the state military industry, nationalization of a number of enterprises and industries, construction of infrastructure, credit and tax policies, “growth policy”) while simultaneously caring about “effective demand” - in the spirit of neo-Keynesianism.

In the 50s there is an economic recovery (“economic miracle” in Italy, Germany and other countries). There is a change in the structure of the economy associated with the scientific and technological revolution (STR). Integration processes in Europe begin, facilitated by the Treaty of Rome in 1957.

In the 60s Against the general background, there is a rapid growth of the Japanese economy, which for a long time becomes the world standard for product quality based on the latest achievements of scientific and technological progress. One of the main components of Japan's success is rightfully considered the accumulation and integration of the world's scientific and technical resources. This will manifest itself in the “buying up of ideas” (including unclaimed ones) around the world.

Structural economic crisis The 70s - early 80s, the oil crisis of 1973, stagflation showed the ineffectiveness of neo-Keynesian methods of regulating the economy. During this period, the Bretton Woods monetary system collapsed. At the same time, a new stage of scientific and technological revolution begins (computer revolution, transition to energy and resource-saving technologies, greening of production). New forms of marketing and management are emerging.

In the 80s a neoconservative economic concept is being formed (based on the libertarian theories of F. Hayek and L. Mises). The formation of neoconservative sentiments in society was influenced by economists of the monetary school (M. Friedman, M. Parkin) and supply theory (A. Laffer, M. Feldstein). World society has entered the post-industrial phase, the development of society has become a product of social compromise of all classes and social groups. Organizations with mixed types of ownership and joint-stock companies began to spread on a large scale. During this period the market became more regulated. Has been developed contract system relations (manufacturer - wholesale buyer). At the same time, processes of personification of political power are taking place in the World.

In the 90s There is a large-scale internationalization of production and all social life. This is mainly due to the creation of transnational corporations (TNCs).

During this period, there was an increase in integration phenomena such as regional interstate economic systems created to ensure the free movement of goods and capital. The free movement of goods and capital ensures a significant reduction in the production and sales cycle and non-production costs. The largest regional interstate economic systems today are:

♦ in Europe - EU (25 countries in 2005 from Austria to Estonia);

♦ in North America - NAFTA (Canada, USA and Mexico);

♦ in South America - MERCOSUR (Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay);

♦ in the Pacific region - APEC (21 countries in 2005 from Vietnam to New Zealand).

At the beginning of the 21st century. The “leadership jersey” in integration processes is once again moving to Southeast Asia. China demonstrates to the world the best examples of integrating foreign investment and world scientific and technological achievements with the national resource base (raw materials, labor, etc.). The result is the highest rates of economic development in the world. The so-called special economic zones as a type of free economic zones played a significant role in these processes.

Thus, global trends in integration processes in management today are associated both with the development of regional interstate economic systems, and with the pooling of the world's best resources (primarily scientific and technical) within individual states.

65. Basic functions and principles of management.

Management principles- these are the starting points of management theory, the basic rules of activity in this area for the management of an organization.

The basic principles of management include the following.

Science combined with elements of art.

The leading principle of management is the principle of the optimal combination of centralization and decentralization in management. The principle of combining centralization and decentralization presupposes the skillful use unity of command And collegiality in management.

Unity of command - This is granting the manager the right to independently resolve issues within his competence, with personal responsibility for the assigned area of ​​​​work. Collegiality involves the development of a joint decision based on the opinions of managers different levels, as well as the opinions of the executors of specific decisions.

The essence the principle of hierarchy and feedback consists in creating a multi-level management structure, when primary management links are subordinate to the next level of management, etc.

The principle of planning consists in establishing the main directions and proportions of the organization’s development.

The principle of combining rights, duties and responsibilities assumes that each subordinate is obliged to perform the tasks assigned to him and periodically report for their implementation.

The principle of consistency. All management steps are carried out in a strictly defined order, both in time and space. For example, you cannot first make a decision and then comprehend the situation.

In some cases, management operations can be carried out cyclically those. repeat at certain intervals (for example, control, preparation of accounting reports).

Principle of motivation consists in using the motives of human behavior in the practice of managing his activities.

The most important principle of management in modern production is the principle of democratization of management.

The essence of any purposeful activity, including management, is manifested in functions(Latin functio - duty, range of activities, purpose, role).

The management function is a type of management activity aimed at solving a specific management problem, which is carried out using special techniques and methods.

Among the main characteristics of management functions are:

§ homogeneity of the content of work performed within the framework of one management function;

§ target orientation of these works;

§ a separate set of tasks performed.

Stand out are common And specific(special) functions. The first ones are considered as functions that are mandatory for execution in any organizational system, the second - as functions that reflect the specifics of a particular organizational system.

The relationship of general functions, illustrating the content of the management process, is presented in Fig. 65.1.

Rice. 65.1.Relationship general functions management

Specific management functions include marketing, personnel management, production management, technological process, finance, etc.

Planning- this is a type of management activity associated with drawing up plans for the organization and its components. Plans contain a list of what needs to be done, determine the sequence, resources and time required to achieve the goals.

To work effectively, managers set specific, measurable, relevant, stimulating, visible goals for the organization for a certain period of time. Developing effective goals strengthens incentives, sets clear guidelines for activity, and creates a clear picture of expected results.

Organic integral part planning involves the preparation of long- and medium-term forecasts showing possible directions for the future development of the organization, considered in close interaction with its environment. Forecasts for the future form the basis of strategic plans, which reflect the most important connections for any organization between goals, resources and capabilities. environment. In its turn, strategic plans form the basis of current plans with the help of which the work of the enterprise is organized.

The effectiveness of planning depends on compliance with its principles.

The principle of unity. The planned activities of any part of the organization are connected with the planned activities of the entire organization. All plans developed in an organization are an interconnected system.

The principle of participation. The planning process must involve those directly affected by it. Participants in planned activities acquire deeper knowledge about various aspects of the life of the organization; they have new motives for effective work if the organization's plans become their personal plans.

The principle of continuity. The planning process in organizations must be ongoing. This is dictated by such objective circumstances as uncertainty and variability of the external environment. Constant changes in the organization's perceptions of its internal capabilities should also be taken into account.

The principle of flexibility. Plans should be drawn up in such a way that they can be updated in connection with the changing conditions of the organization's activities.

The principle of accuracy. Any plan must be drawn up with a degree of accuracy that will allow it to be implemented.

Achieving the intended results requires detailed development of plans for specific actions, i.e. determining what, who, when, where and in what quantity is required to solve a given problem. Such elaboration of plans allows us to evaluate the practical possibility of solving problems and find a better and more effective way to achieve the intended result. At the same time, it is necessary to ensure the interrelation of the planned actions, determine their priority, deadlines for implementation and the necessary resources.

Organization(organization) as a management function requires the manager to be fluent in analytical skills. The task of this function is to form the structure of the enterprise, as well as to provide it with everything necessary for normal operation - personnel, materials, equipment, premises, in cash etc. Once the plan is drawn up, the task is to create real conditions for achieving the intended goals.

To organize means to divide a whole into parts and delegate the implementation of a general management task to lower levels by distributing responsibilities, powers, and also establishing relationships between various types works To this end, the rights, duties and responsibilities of structural units and individuals must be clearly defined. This is achieved by developing provisions on structural divisions and instructions defining the internal regulations, the boundaries of the activities of each unit and employee of the organization.

The means to achieve normal relationships between levels of management is delegation of authority.

Delegation means transferring tasks and authority from top to bottom to the person or group who accepts responsibility for their implementation. Purposes of delegation:

Ø relieve senior managers, free them from current work and create best conditions to solve strategic and long-term management problems;

Ø increase the efficiency of lower levels;

Ø activate the human factor, i.e. to interest employees as much as possible in the general tasks of the enterprise.

An analysis of the changes taking place in a market economy shows that many organizations are moving away from the functional principle of building structures, reducing the so-called vertical (hierarchy), management, and delegating authority from top to bottom. New links are being introduced into the structure, including those related to the need to study the market and develop an organization development strategy.

An equally important task of the organization’s function is to create conditions for the formation of a culture within the organization that is characterized by high sensitivity to change, scientific and technological progress, common values ​​for the entire organization. The main thing here is working with staff; development of strategic and economic thinking in the minds of managers; support for entrepreneurial employees who are prone to creativity, innovation and are not afraid to take risks and take responsibility for solving the problems of the enterprise.

Not a single task will be successfully solved with high quality and at minimal cost if people are not interested in it. This leads to another important function of management - motivational.

Target motivation - create incentives for the employee to work and encourage him to work with full dedication. People's behavior is determined by many motives. A motive is something that causes a person to act in a certain way. The motive is located inside a person, has a personal character, depends on various external and internal factors in relation to him.

The inner drives that make people act in a certain way are based on their needs. According to the theory of the American sociologist A. Maslow, all human needs can be divided into five groups. The hierarchy of needs (according to Maslow) and ways to satisfy them are presented in Figure 6.2.

Maslow's model has a pyramid model, because the higher the level of needs in the hierarchy, the fewer people they become real motives for behavior. Unmet needs motivate people to take action; satisfied people no longer motivate people. At the same time, the needs located closer to the base of the pyramid require satisfaction first. Higher-level needs more actively motivate a person to act after lower-level needs have been largely satisfied.

Rice. 65.2 . Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

The manager's task is to know people, to observe them in order to determine what active needs drive them.

The concept of “morale” is closely related to motivation, which manifests a person’s attitude towards work at the enterprise. Factors such as fairness, recognition of merit, feedback, and involvement in the collective process significantly influence the moral climate of the team. An employee who is in good morale is often cheerful, loyal and enthusiastic, and this ultimately determines the performance of the enterprise. Therefore, a manager seeking to improve morale tries to find ways to motivate people to work with enthusiasm and maximum efficiency, which is extremely important for achieving success.

Control- This is a management function, the task of which is to quantitatively and qualitatively assess and record the results of the enterprise. The main tools for performing this function are observation, checking all aspects of activity, accounting and analysis. At the same time, control should be timely and simple. The latter is especially important for small businesses.

Management control as one of the main tools for policy development and decision making ensures the smooth functioning of the organization to achieve its intended goals, as in long term, and in matters of operational management. The contents of the control function include:

Ø collection, processing and analysis of information on the actual results of the activities of all departments;

Ø comparing them with planned indicators;

Ø identification of deviations and analysis of their causes;

Ø development of measures to make urgent decisions regarding the operational activities of a particular unit of the organization.

The following main types of control are distinguished:

§ preliminary control, which is carried out before the actual start of work (assessment of personnel qualifications, development of standards regarding material resources, budgeting, etc.);

§ current control carried out during the work process. Most often, the object of control is employees, and control itself is the prerogative of their immediate supervisor. Current control for the management apparatus plays the role of feedback;

§ final control helps the organization's management to prevent future mistakes when planning work.

The following types of standards are used in management control: natural, cost, capital, revenue, program, intangible, target.

Controlling (from the English control - management, regulation, control) is a new management concept generated by the practice of modern management.

One of the main reasons for the emergence and implementation of the controlling concept was the need for system integration of various aspects of business process management in the organizational system (i.e., in the enterprise, in trading company, bank, organ government controlled and etc.). Controlling provides a methodological and instrumental basis for supporting (including computer) the basic functions of management: planning, control, accounting and analysis, as well as assessing the situation for adoption management decisions.

The control process is a closed cycle consisting of four stages (Fig. 6.3.). In order to carry out effective control, standards are set, i.e. criteria for assessing the performance of an enterprise. They must be closely linked to strategic goals, otherwise the wrong objective may be monitored.

Rice. 65..3.Stages of the control process

For control to be effective, i.e. ensures the achievement of the organization's goals, it must comply with the following principles:

§ strategic orientation, those. control must reflect and support the overall priorities of the organization;

§ results-oriented, those. control should contribute to the achievement of set goals and the formulation of new goals that will ensure the survival of the organization in the future;

§ timeliness, those. necessary:

a) determine the most appropriate monitoring time interval, taking into account the parameters of the main plan, the rate of change, as well as the costs of carrying out measurements and disseminating the results obtained,

b) provide the opportunity to eliminate deviations before they become serious;

§ flexibility, those. control must be able to adapt to changes;

§ you just control, which provides a better understanding of its goals and tools, and therefore support existing system control by the organization’s personnel (in addition, simple control methods are more economical);

§ efficiency, those. the costs of control should not exceed the benefits it creates; its scale must correspond to the needs of the management system for analytical information;

§ compliance means and methods of control used controlled activity(subject of control).

To increase the effectiveness of control and avoid its negative impact on employees, experts recommend:

§ set meaningful standards that are perceived by employees;

§ discuss expected results with employees;

§ set strict but achievable standards;

§ avoid excessive control;

§ reward for achieving standards.

Thus, control is the process of ensuring that an organization achieves its goals. The purpose of control is to prevent possible deviations from planned plans.

Closely related to the planning function is the function of regulation and coordination, which is carried out by management bodies in the process of implementing plans.

Regulation there is activity to maintain specified parameters in a dynamic production management system. It is determined by the task of maintaining a state of order, both in the production subsystem and in the management subsystem. The regulation function is determined by normativity: in its field of vision is any deviation from the norm.

Coordination ensures consistency of actions in time and space between management bodies and officials, as well as between the system as a whole and external environment. The object of the coordination function is both the managed and the control subsystems.

Coordination- This is a type of management activity to ensure the smoothness and continuity of the management process and the interconnection of all management functions. The main task of coordination is to achieve consistency in the work of all levels of management by establishing rational connections and exchanging information between them.

By its nature, coordination activities are:

A) preventive - aimed at anticipating problems and difficulties;

b) eliminating - designed to resolve system outages after they have occurred;

V) regulating - aimed at preserving the existing production and management system;

G) stimulating - aimed at improving the performance of the organization’s production and management system even in the absence of visible problems.

Coordinating actions within a small company is relatively simple, since in a small team all employees are visible, and management, as a rule, is carried out at the level of direct communication. It is more difficult to carry out the coordination process in a medium-sized and even more so in a large enterprise, but only clearly coordinated activities of all interconnected parts of the organization make it possible to achieve success.

1. Financial and industrial group

2. Corporation

3. Transnational corporation

4. Holding

5. Consortium

6. Conglomerate

7. Joint venture

8. Cartel

9. Syndicate

Changes in the organization and methods of functioning of enterprises as business entities are due to the processes of property privatization and shifts in the management system, as a result of which economic management was separated from administrative management, and control over the implementation of basic functions passed from government agencies to the management of enterprises.

New forms of integration of economic entities are being approved:

a) by entering enterprises into vertical structures (corporate groups), reorganized from industry structures or created anew;

b) based on the formation of horizontal formations.

In both the first and second cases, the necessary coordination and organizational and financial interaction are ensured, efficient systems technological development, sustainable market strategy, resource support for corporate financial institutions.

Below we consider the main forms of enterprise integration that are developing in modern conditions.

1. FINANCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL GROUP

Modern financial and industrial groups (FIGs) are diversified multifunctional structures formed as a result of combining the capital of enterprises, financial and investment institutions, as well as other organizations with the aim of maximizing profits, increasing the efficiency of production and financial operations, enhancing competitiveness on the domestic and foreign markets. markets, technological and cooperation ties, growth of the economic potential of the entire group as a whole and each of its participants individually.

The development of financial industrial groups in the current conditions in a promising way formation of modern large-scale production.

A characteristic feature of the current stage of development of financial industrial groups is their diversified focus, which allows them to respond flexibly and quickly to unexpected changes in an increasingly complex market environment.

The choice of the nature of the FIG's activity and the degree of its universalization is determined by economic feasibility, on the one hand, and the degree of development of market relations in the country, on the other.

The creation of financial industrial groups is carried out in several ways:

1. Voluntary association of capitals of individual participants and the establishment of a joint stock company, which is a newly created organizational structure, with all economic and legal powers and corresponding legal and economic responsibility.

2. Voluntary transfer by the participants of the created financial-industrial group of blocks of their shares for the management of one of the group members, as a rule, a bank or financial credit institution.

3. The acquisition by one of the group members of stakes in other enterprises, companies, organizations that
as a result of this they become participants in financial industrial groups.

4. Acquisition is not always voluntary and may be organically connected with the processes of mergers and acquisitions of some companies by others.

An international type financial industrial group is a structure consisting of a parent company and branches, branches, subsidiaries in other countries. The higher the degree of internationalization of the capital of a financial industrial group, the greater the number of foreign branches it has in the structure of its organization, other things being equal. It is characteristic that not only the production divisions of financial industrial groups are transferred abroad, but also the financial links of the groups themselves, which helps to accelerate the financial transactions of the group as a whole, allows the use of local market conditions with maximum effect (changes in currency ratios in different countries, inflation rates, tax benefits etc.).

FIGs have a number of advantages over other market entities in economic and financial terms:

The technological chain from the extraction of raw materials to the release of final products is being strengthened, and the integration of production is increasing;

Diversification of activities gives greater stability and competitiveness in the market environment;

Real prerequisites and opportunities for structural restructuring of production are being created;

There are prospects for accumulating significant capital to achieve set production and financial goals;

Real opportunities arise to maneuver financial resources both within the financial industrial group itself and outside it, expanding the scale of activity and sphere of influence;

There is a redistribution of capital between various divisions of the financial industrial group in accordance with the strategic choice of the group;

The financial strength of the group, its financial stability and the ability to use advanced capital with maximum efficiency are increased.

Organizational building FIG is distinguished by the decentralization of management while simultaneously increasing the efficiency of the organizational structures of individual units included in the group, a clear distribution of powers and responsibilities, and reliable mechanisms for making coordinated management decisions. By including research and development units in the structure of financial industrial groups, and consequently bringing them closer to the direct consumer, the time frame for introducing scientific and technical developments into production is reduced. Thanks to the presence of a single marketing service gaps in the supply chain are eliminated, which contributes to faster capital turnover.

Among the activities that contribute to the revitalization of the investment process are: big role called upon to play:

Formation within the financial industrial group investment companies created on the principle of direct financing, i.e. under equity securities;

Creation of venture funds at the expense of all participants of the financial industrial group, whose task is to finance the most risky investment projects;

Widespread use of the mechanism for creating joint, dependent and subsidiary organizations with the aim of organically combining the financial resources of not all, but only those interested and directly related to the specific activities of the members of the financial industrial group.

Financial industrial groups are natural partners of the federal executive branch in the development and implementation of the strategic line. They also increase the macroeconomic regulation of production and introduce stability into international economic cooperation.

2. CORPORATION

In the practice of countries with developed market economies, a corporation is the most common form of organizing the management of large-scale production. This is an organization or union of organizations created to protect any interests and privileges of participants and form an independent entity. The fundamentals of corporate law establish the right of a corporation to act as a legal entity independently of its owners. The corporation can sign contracts, take out loans, make advances, etc., in its own name, without individual shareholders being held liable for its actions. The legally independent existence of a corporation is necessary so that the company can function normally in the presence of a huge number of individual shareholders.

A modern corporation is, as a rule, a parent company, with a whole network of subsidiaries, branches, branches, agencies and other business entities that have different legal status and varying degrees of economic and operational independence. Therefore, the forms and methods of its management are of fundamental importance for the activities of a corporation.

Shareholders do not directly manage the company. Instead, they delegate this right to the president (CEO), but at the same time influence his decisions in various ways and mainly through their voting rights.

Shares of corporate ownership are usually also voting shares. Shareholders elect a board of directors, which controls the activities of the executive body.

One of the most important features of most corporations
is the fact that their shares can be freely bought and sold on the market.

Corporations help solve two fundamental problems of a market economy:

1. Raising capital for large investments.

2. Diversification and risk distribution.

In modern conditions, the defining trend in corporate management is the use of both traditional, linear-functional and other structures, and modern forms, providing for a transition from centralized management to decentralized management systems. The main features of this process are: organization of departments in companies by type of product; the introduction of group senior managers to coordinate the production and economic activities of several departments or companies; subordination of functional bodies to senior corporate management.

Decentralization of the corporate management structure is based on the separation of the general corporate level from production and economic. Responsibility for the results of production and economic activities and for the competitiveness of products is assigned to the department management staff. Opportunities are created for senior management to engage in long-term forecasts, expanding external contacts, and organizing the activities of the board of directors.

Within a corporation, rights and responsibilities are divided between different bodies governing marketing, technical developments, supply, production and sales.

The strengthening of primary production and economic links and the establishment of limits to decentralization in corporations are largely explained by the need to reduce production costs and overhead costs. Strengthening the influence of senior management is facilitated by stricter financial control and close coordination organizational structure management with the process of corporate planning of production and economic activities.

Under the influence of changes taking place in the global and Russian economy, as well as increased competition between countries and companies, integration processes are becoming increasingly widespread. The concept of integration began to be widely used in the 1950s-60s, first to reflect processes occurring at the level of international entities and blocs (for example, the integration of countries of the capitalist or socialist camp), and later, under the influence of the trend towards general economic integration, it was transferred to the level of organizations .

Integration refers to the joining of efforts of a number of organizations to achieve a common strategic goal, strengthening their competitiveness and increasing efficiency. In the specialized literature, there are two main types of integration of organizations:

• - horizontal, when the efforts of different organizations are combined to achieve some common goals (for example, the creation of associations, common financial authorities, property management bodies, groupings, formation of financial and industrial groups);
• - vertical, when enterprises connected with each other technologically are united by participating in the value chain (in order to implement a coordinated policy in the field of prices, marketing, advertising, etc., management zones are divided, and permanent functions are assigned to each enterprise).

Along with this, in the practice of mergers and incorporations, a third type of integration is often distinguished, which is a combination of the first two and is called diagonal integration.

The integration process leads to the formation of integral entities from independently functioning organizations, each of which perceives other organizations and companies as parts of a single economic organism. At the same time, not only initiative and the ability to see unfilled niches, but also the ability to connect different economic structures, establish a clear, reliable network of interaction between business entities. Due to the connection of potentials various enterprises, complementing each other, creates a synergistic effect, which leads to an increase in the effectiveness of integration education. Here’s how the director of the Tochpribor plant, V.I. Afanasyev, speaks about it: “It is necessary that the entire chain be organizationally and economically unified. Let's say there is a product of the Russian Space Agency: launch, satellite communications, environmental monitoring or monitoring of agricultural and forest lands, etc. - from this result, the entire chain fed itself, solved the problem of reimbursing spent working capital, received income, distributed it among the links in proportion to their contribution to the final result - and in the end, everyone works normally and lives normally.”

Large integrated structures form the framework of the economies of leading countries and the world economy as a whole, providing competitive advantages through the integration of resources.

In a number of countries, horizontal integration is developing in the form of national associations, which do a lot in the interests of product manufacturers. So, they concentrate information, conduct marketing research, communicate with major large consumers, supply government agencies with qualified information, etc. Thus, in the coal industry of Kuzbass there has been a tendency towards increased vertical integration, in which economic structures nominally retain economic and financial independence, but subordinate their activities to the goals and objectives of a higher organization. At the same time, structures are formed that make it possible to delegate decision-making from above to lower levels. Examples of such structures are Kuzbassrazrezugol, Kuznetskugol, Southern Kuzbass Corporation, and OJSC Kuzbassugol Coal Company.

The creation of vertically integrated associations does not always occur on a voluntary basis. The Tyumen Oil Company (TNK) acquired a stake in the Yaroslavnefteorgsintez company (YANOS) and a significant stake in its authorized capital in order to strengthen its position. As justification, its president stated that in the near future only balanced, vertically integrated oil companies with production of at least 25 million tons of oil per year will feel oil market sustainable and safe (YANOS production volume is 9.5 million tons per year). The rest risk not surviving in the intense competition.

The experience of the agro-industrial sector shows that vertical integration, focused on final demand, increasing competitiveness, technological compatibility of all stages of cooperative production and synchronization of supplies of raw materials and finished products to the consumer, allows you to quickly increase volumes and improve product quality. Horizontal integration in agriculture ensures cooperation between agricultural enterprises and peasant (farm) farms. In countries with developed market economies, farmer cooperatives of various types (for sales and processing of products, logistics, production and financial services, etc.) ensure the sustainability of farms and distribute risks.

Each form of integration has its own goals, which is a decisive factor in organizing management. Thus, when creating a holding, the goals are set to implement a uniform policy for all participants, monitor compliance with interests, accelerate diversification, and concentrate resources. The interests of the companies forming the association may be related to the need for lobbying, searching for new markets, conducting research, assistance in logistics, etc. When forming financial and industrial groups, the tasks are set to achieve interaction between banks and industry and bridge the gap between sectors and sectors of the economy.

One form of integration between large and small businesses may be the formation of “planetary type” subsystems, in which interactions between companies are determined by the “gravitational field” that arises around the largest partner.

It is his orders, loans, investments and other types of resources that attract small businesses to this field and explain their desire to integrate.

Often, this stage of integration is followed by another, which involves the complete takeover, purchase, and even cessation of the independent existence of small companies. A similar trend towards integration has emerged in Russian civil aviation, where, after the collapse of the single state enterprise Aeroflot, about 300 airlines were registered. Now their number is decreasing due to the absorption of small carriers by larger ones, which thus increase their aircraft fleet and capture new transportation markets.

As a result, many small and medium-sized carriers lost their independence or ceased to exist. It is expected that further consolidation of airlines will take place within the framework of existing or emerging alliances. In the end, there will be four or five powerful unions in Russia that will control the bulk of air travel.

They will have big names, which will strengthen the positions of the participants in these alliances. And since the markets are already divided, there will be powerful competition between these unions.

In market economic conditions, in order to solve the problems facing the enterprise, there is a need to unite (integrate) enterprises. This is due, first of all, to the need to achieve financial stability enterprises in conditions of strong competition.

The goals of integration are:

1. reduction in the duration of creation and implementation new technology;
2. increasing the competitiveness of products in the sales market;
3. reduction of production costs;
4. increase in profitability and profit.

Depending on the goals and objectives set, enterprises are united either on the basis of the principle Cooperations, or Concentrations.

Enterprises cooperate, as a rule, to jointly implement large projects, to implement common tasks and coordinate behavior in the product sales market. Integration based on cooperation can be temporary or permanent. Its forms of organization are cartel and consortium.

Cartel is a form of union of enterprises based on an agreement that establishes conditions mandatory for all participants (firms):

• by production volume;
• prices for goods;
• shares (quota) in sales markets;
• exchange of patents, etc.

Cartel participants retain legal and economic independence. The formation of production proportions and technological division of labor are carried out through market levers (product sales conditions, payment terms, price levels, etc.).

Violation of the terms of the cartel agreement is punishable by a fine.

In cartel agreements, each participant independently purchases raw materials and carries out work.

Consortium- this is one of the forms of integration of banks and enterprises (firms) on the basis of a cartel agreement for jointly carrying out large financial transactions for the implementation of capital-intensive projects in order to obtain high profits.

As a rule, this is a temporary association of participants for the period of achieving a certain goal. The consortium participants can be both public and private enterprises.

In a consortium, the enterprises fully retain their independence, but within the framework of the set goal, the consortium members are subordinate to a jointly elected leadership.

A type of association based on a cartel agreement is widespread in the field of patents and licenses.

Integration of enterprises based on the principle Concentrations Produced on the basis of centralization and concentration of capital.

Centralization is a merger of individual capitals (share contributions in authorized capital) into a single capital for joint use. In world practice, the most common form of centralization of capital is the mechanism of education Share capital.

The main sign of enterprise centralization Their subordination to a single management, which is formed either on a statutory (contractual) basis, or in accordance with the share of the authorized capital, a controlling stake.

Capital concentration– this is an increase in capital as a result of accumulating part of the profit for the development of enterprises (profit capitalization).

Indicators of profit concentration are:

1. number of employees;
2. volume of production;
3. ownership share in the selected industry sector;
4. sales scale.

The limits of concentration are limited, on the one hand, by the possibilities of reducing unit costs of production and distribution, and on the other hand, by antimonopoly legislation (protection of consumer rights).

There are three main types of concentration:

1. horizontal;
2. vertical;
3. diversification.

Horizontal concentration is the concentration of the same type of means of production (for example, metalworking) from one large company.

Vertical concentration is an association within Corporations For all successive stages of production (from the extraction of raw materials to the marketing of finished products), see n/a.

That is, a corporation is a joint-stock company that combines the activities of several firms to achieve common goals or protect privileges. As a legal entity, it is responsible for debts and taxes for all enterprises that are part of it in the form of specialized organizations and enterprises.

Diversification- this is the penetration of large enterprises into areas unusual for them production structure other industries (for example, beer production; furniture production). Diversification is actively spreading in world practice, which is due to the following reasons:

• limited capacity of the market for specialized products;
• reducing the risk of business activity by expanding and redistributing sources of corporate profit;
• the ability to compensate for losses during the period of structural changes, product renewal, market fluctuations of one industry group of products due to the high profitability of another industry group of products;
• the ability to flexibly maneuver investments for individual areas of production development.

Basic organizational forms mergers of enterprises based on concentration are Syndicate, trust, concern, association .

Syndicate - this is an association of enterprises with the aim of centralizing the functions of providing resources and marketing (product sales) on the basis of agreeing on conditions, the participants of the syndicate retain their legal status, but lose their commercial viability.

By concentrating the sales of products in single bodies, the syndicate has the opportunity to regulate the conditions of sale on the market (dumping). Centralization of the functions of providing raw materials makes it possible to reduce costs through wholesale purchases.

Trust - this is a combination of enterprises in which there is strong centralization of management. In this case, the participants completely lose their commercial independence. Creating a trust means transferring legal rights to the holder of a controlling share of stock (or a special certificate of trust).

This means, unlike other types of associations in a trust One owner(entity).

In modern conditions, trusts can be either industry-specific (classical) or inter-industry. In the latter case, these are factories.

Trusts of a horizontal structure (industry) and vertical (interindustry), along with production complexes, can include trading and service enterprises.

But trusts are rarely widespread in world practice.

The most common organizational form of business association is a concern.

Concern - This is a form of contractual large associations, usually of a monopoly type. In Russia, concerns are created on the basis of large state-owned enterprises and associations.

The concern includes research and production associations, production companies, trade and sales and financial organizations(banks). Concerns have a certain resistance to fluctuations in market conditions and are able to profitably concentrate and redistribute investment resources. The enterprises included in the concern retain their legal independence. A concern can arise either on the basis of relations of dependence of some enterprises on the parent (subordination concern), or as a union of equal partner enterprises under a single leadership (equal concern).

Unified financial control in the concern is complemented by centralization functional management: primarily supply, production, marketing.

On modern stage Another manifestation of the concentration of production and capital is the formation International concerns, Which are divided into Transnational(owned by one country) and Multinational(with cross-country distribution of share capital).

3 groups of international corporations:

1. related to the extraction and processing of fuel and energy resources;
2. chemical concerns to ensure comprehensive processing of petrochemical products;
3. enterprises with detailed specialization that are part of international entities.

The efficiency of the concern's functioning largely depends on the organizational and economic mechanism of its management. The development of such a mechanism is A serious problem Since the manifestation of centripetal or centrifugal forces in the activities of the concern depends on its solution.

Holding companies. They are characterized by having control over other companies, either through ownership of their shares and cash capital, or through the right to appoint directors of the control companies.

Although the enterprises included in the holding association remain independent, Holding(due to a controlling stake) can influence their economic and commercial decisions, is able to centralize and redistribute the financial resources of participants, if this is due to necessity and common benefit.

Economic Association(union, foundation) is a contractual association of organizations and enterprises created for the purpose of jointly implementing one or more production and economic functions. Participation in an association imposes less stringent restrictions on an enterprise than in a concern. Members of the association may enter into other contractual associations of enterprises without agreement with other participants.

In addition, in order to protect citizens in any spheres of society’s life, Social associations, which includes various charities or mixed production, economic and social associations.

Enterprises can also unite into regional unions.

Thus, the main goals of combining enterprises are to achieve financial stability through:

1) reducing the duration of creation and implementation of new technology, due to increased investment opportunities.

Under the influence of changes taking place in the global and Russian economy, as well as increased competition between countries and companies, integration processes are becoming increasingly widespread. Concept integration began to be widely used in the 1950-60s, first to reflect processes occurring at the level of interethnic formations and blocs (for example, the integration of countries of the capitalist or socialist camp), and later, under the influence of the trend towards general economic integration, it was transferred to the level of organizations. It is interpreted as combining the efforts of a number of organizations to achieve a common strategic goal, strengthening their competitiveness and increasing efficiency.

Types of integration

In the specialized literature, there are two main types of integration of organizations:

horizontal, when the efforts of different organizations are combined to achieve any common goals (for example, the creation of associations, general financial bodies, property management bodies, groupings, the formation of financial and industrial groups);

vertical, when enterprises that are technologically connected with each other are united by participating in the value chain (in order to implement a coordinated policy in the field of prices, marketing, advertising, etc., management zones are divided, and permanent functions are assigned to each enterprise).

Along with this, in the practice of mergers and incorporations, a third type of integration is often distinguished, which is a combination of the first two and is called diagonal integration.

The integration process leads to the formation of integral entities from independently functioning organizations, each of which perceives other organizations and companies as parts of a single economic organism. At the same time, not only initiative and the ability to see unfilled niches are of particular value, but also the ability to connect different economic structures and establish a clear, reliable network of interaction between business entities. By combining the potentials of various enterprises that complement each other, a synergistic effect is created, which leads to an increase in the effectiveness of integration education. Here’s how the director of the Tochpribor plant, V.I. Afanasyev, speaks about it: “It is necessary that the entire chain be organizationally and economically unified. Let’s say there is a product of the Russian Space Agency: launch, satellite communications, environmental monitoring or monitoring of agricultural and forest lands, etc. - from this result the entire chain was fed, solved the problem of reimbursement of spent working capital, received income, distributed it between links in proportion to their contribution to the final result - and in the end everyone works normally and lives normally.”

Large integrated structures form the framework of the economies of leading countries and the world economy as a whole, providing competitive advantages through the integration of resources. Below are several examples of integration formations in the world and in our country.

In a number of countries, horizontal integration is developing in the form national associations, who do a lot in the interests of product manufacturers. Thus, they concentrate information, conduct marketing research, communicate with major large consumers, supply government agencies with qualified information, etc. In Europe, for example, national associations of manufacturers of machine tool products from EU countries have created the European Sesimo Association, headquartered in Brussels. It includes committees for standardization, unification, and development of uniform requirements for the Western market. In addition, the directorate of the association represents and protects the interests of national associations in the EU structures.

Our country also has many examples of vertical and horizontal integration of enterprises and organizations in various sectors of the economy.

Thus, in the coal industry of Kuzbass there has been a tendency towards increasing vertical integration, in which economic structures nominally retain economic and financial independence, but subordinate their activities to the goals and objectives of a higher organization. At the same time, structures are formed that make it possible to delegate decision-making from above to lower levels. Examples of such structures are Kuzbassrazrezugol, Kuznetskugol, Southern Kuzbass Corporation, and OJSC Coal Company Kuzbassugol (ECO, 2000, No. 2, p. 22).

The creation of vertically integrated associations does not always occur on a voluntary basis. Here is one example. The Tyumen Oil Company (TNK) acquired a stake in the Yaroslavnefteorgsintez company (YANOS) and a significant stake in its authorized capital in order to strengthen its position. As justification, its president stated that in the near future, only balanced, vertically integrated oil companies with production of at least 25 million tons of oil per year will feel stable and safe in the oil market (the production volume of the YANOS company is 9.5 million tons in year). The rest risk not surviving in the intense competition (Oil and Capital, 2000, No. 6, pp. 42-43).

The experience of the agro-industrial sector shows that vertical integration, focused on final demand, increasing competitiveness, technological compatibility of all stages of cooperative production and synchronizing the supply of raw materials and finished products to the consumer, allows you to quickly increase volumes and improve the quality of products. Example: OJSC “Omsk Bacon”, which is a modern holding company that includes the largest feed mill, a meat processing plant, three meat processing plants in Omsk, seven branded stores, and banking structures. In 1998, as a result of cooperation, the sales volume amounted to 600 million rubles.

Horizontal integration in agriculture it ensures cooperation between agricultural enterprises and peasant (farm) farms. In countries with developed market economies, farmer cooperatives of various types (for sales and processing of products, logistics, production and financial services, etc.) ensure the sustainability of farms and distribute risks.

There are also examples in agriculture mixed, horizontal-vertical integration. Thus, JSC Kolos in the Perm region united 28 production cooperatives: for the production of crop and livestock products, for the processing of agricultural raw materials, maintenance, construction, supply, trade, production of goods and provision of services to the population (Krylatykh E. N. Cooperation of producers // ECO, 2000, No. 2, pp. 133-134).

Each form of integration has its own goals, which is a decisive factor in organizing management. So, when creating holding the goals of pursuing a uniform policy for all participants, monitoring compliance with interests, accelerating diversification, and concentrating resources are set. Interests of the companies forming association, may be associated with the need for lobbying, searching for new markets, conducting research, assistance in logistics, etc. When forming financial and industrial groups, the tasks are set to achieve the necessary interaction between banks and industry and bridge the gap between sectors and industries of the economy.

One form of integration between large and small businesses may be the formation of “planetary type” subsystems, in which interactions between companies are determined by the “gravitational field” that arises around the largest partner. It is his orders, loans, investments and other types of resources that attract small businesses to this field and explain their desire to integrate. Often, however, this stage of integration is followed by another, which involves the complete absorption, purchase, and even cessation of the independent existence of small companies.

Let's give an example from civil aviation. Over the past five years, the English airline British Airways has entered into a number of partnership agreements with American air carriers and has stepped up efforts to acquire various foreign and domestic companies, buying up their shares. As a result, many small and medium-sized carriers in the West lost their independence or ceased to exist. It is expected that further consolidation of airlines will take place within the framework of existing or emerging alliances. In the end, according to the head of British Airways, K. Marshall, there will be four or five powerful unions in the world that will control the bulk of air travel. They will have big names, which will strengthen the positions of the participants in these alliances. And since the markets are already divided, there will be powerful competition between these unions.

A similar trend towards integration has emerged in Russian civil aviation, where, after the collapse of the single state enterprise Aeroflot, about 300 airlines were registered. Now their number is decreasing due to the absorption of small carriers by larger ones, which thus increase their aircraft fleet and capture new transportation markets (Expert, April 27, 1998, No. 16, pp. 56-57).

Research conducted by the Interdepartmental analytical center in various regions of the Russian Federation, revealed a clear integration trend in the development of large and small businesses. It is especially pronounced where production and financial indicators are getting worse. The managers of such enterprises believe that integration with suppliers of raw materials and components, with manufacturers of similar products (to coordinate sales policies), with financial institutions is a condition for overcoming the crisis situation.

Most attractive organizational forms integration are considered corporate associations formed as a result of mergers and the formation of financial and industrial groups, and the so-called “soft” associations in the form business unions and networks.