1.2. The evolution of managerial thought: from macromanagement to micromanagement, management

Names and written monuments by which one can judge the evolution of public administration:

1.2. Western historical schools and scientific management approaches in the 20th century.

The main factors influencing the formation and development of scientific schools of management of the twentieth century.

I. Rationalist School (School of Scientific Management)

G.Emirson's principles of management efficiency

II. Administrative (classical) school

Control functions

Principles of building a formal organization by L. Urwick

To manage this system, Ford proposed:

III. School of Human Relations (1930-1950) and its development (1950-1988)

IV. Process approach

V. System approach to management

VI. Situational approach to management

2.3. Russian concepts of scientific management of the XX century

I. Group of organizational and technical concepts

3. The concept of labor attitudes and a narrow base of Aleksey Kapitonovich Gastev.

II. Group of social concepts

1. The theory of organizational activity P.M. Kerzhentsev

2. Social and labor concept of production management N.A. Vitke

For the first time in domestic and foreign educational literature, the process of the genesis, formation and development of the centuries-old world history managerial thought. The textbook presents both the origins of management thought dating back to the fifth millennium BC, and the latest management concepts and paradigms of the early 21st century. Not only the history of management science is described, but also the history of management ideas, views, theories that arose in order to solve real management problems.
For students, teachers and researchers specializing in the management of state, public and private organizations.

At all times, the management of organizations has been complex process which combined elements of science and art. Today, this process has become even more complicated, primarily due to the abrupt, often unpredictable changes taking place both in the organizations themselves and in the external environment. The growth of knowledge about the behavior of an individual in organizations and social processes, the temporal and spatial extent of business processes, the constant expansion of the information field and opportunities information technologies in the management of organizations, the multivariance of managerial decisions and the objective remoteness of their results - all these factors characterize the modern business environment. On the one hand, they expand the possibilities in the areas of activity of organizations, and on the other hand, they emphasize the need to increase the scientific validity of the choice and assessment of the consequences and aftereffects of the decisions made. Thus, despite the slogan "Management is dead", the role of the scientific component in the management of the organization is still very significant. The epigraph to this chapter emphasizes the importance of minimizing errors in management decisions made today, which is largely ensured by their scientific justification.
This circumstance, in turn, requires both further development methodological foundations science of management, and the solution of fundamental problems of the science of management itself. These include, for example, the still controversial question about the subject of science, about a number of categories and concepts of science; the problem of correlation of management science with other sciences; problems of methods of organizing complex scientific research, correlation of art and science in management; the problem of measurements in the management of socio-economic objects. Even a cursory analysis scientific works and textbooks on management allows you to make sure that there are different interpretations of the category "subject of management science", definitions of the terms "management", "management", "organization", "management system", "management functions", "organizational structure", "management mechanism" , "leadership", "organizational culture", "strategic management", "organizational behavior", " organizational development”, “change management”, “management efficiency”.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD 9
Chapter 1. PROBLEMS OF HISTORICAL AND MANAGEMENT RESEARCH 17
1.1. System of Management Sciences 17
1.2. Problems of the study of the history of sciences 26
1.3. Specific Problems in the History of Managerial Thought 36
1.4. The main currents of managerial thought from the 4th millennium BC. by XX to 45
Control questions 63
References 64
Part I. GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT OF FOREIGN MANAGEMENT THOUGHT FROM ANCIENT TIMES TO THE END OF THE XIX CENTURY
Chapter 2. ORIGINS OF MANAGEMENT THOUGHT (4th millennium BC, V century) 70
2.1. Origins and sources of managerial thought 70
2.2. Ideas of Management in the Works of the Thinkers of Ancient Egypt and Western Asia 86
2.3. Development of management problems in ancient China 94
2.4. Views on the management of the state economy in ancient India 125
2.5. Development of management problems in ancient states (Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome) 143
2.6. Management Thought in the Old and New Testaments 163
Security questions 169
References 170
Chapter 3
3.1. Origins and sources of managerial thought in the V-XVII centuries. 172
3.2. Management thought in Byzantium
3.3. Management thought in feudal Western Europe and England (V-XVI centuries)
3.4. Origins and sources of IUM in the 18th-19th centuries.
3.5. Entrepreneurial Ideas in Western Europe
3.6. Classics of political economy on management (XVIII-XIX centuries)
3.7. R. Owen and Social responsibility business
3.8. Ch. Babbage on specialization and division of physical and mental labor
3.9. E. Yur on the replacement of labor by capital
3.10. "The Doctrine of Management" by L. von Stein.
Control questions
Bibliography
Part II. MANAGEMENT THOUGHT IN RUSSIA (IX-XIX CENTURIES)
Chapter 4. THE ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF MANAGEMENT THOUGHT IN RUSSIA (IX-XVIII centuries) 252
4.1. Sources and Origins of IUM in Russia 252
4.2. "Russian Truth" 271
4.3. Ideas for organizing local government in the Moscow centralized state 275
4.4. On the methods of private management in Domostroy 281
4.5. The most important factors in the development of managerial thought in Russia in the 17th century. 285
4.6. Y. Krizhanich 290
4.7. A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin 303
4.8. Reforms of Peter I as a stage in the development of managerial thought 311
4.9. I.T. Pososhkov 315
4.10. M.V. Lomonosov 324
4.11. Catherine II, other Russian emperors and Russian entrepreneurship 327
Control questions
Bibliography
Chapter 5. MANAGEMENT THOUGHT IN RUSSIA in the 19th century
5.1. The main directions of the IUM in Russia in the 19th century. 342
5.2. Characteristics and achievements of noble management thought 345
5.3. Management ideas of revolutionary democrats and populists 362
5.4. Discussion of production management issues at commercial and industrial congresses 390
5.5. Training courses in management at universities in Russia 400
5.6. The contribution of Russian statesmen to the development of management ideas 424
Control questions
Bibliography
Part III. NEW AND MODERN HISTORY OF MANAGEMENT THOUGHT
Chapter 6. WESTERN SCHOOLS OF MANAGEMENT XX century. 436
6.1. F. Taylor School of Scientific Management 439
6.2. Organization and principles of effectiveness X. Emerson 449
6.3. Administrative School A. Fayol 454
6.4. School of Human Relations 461
6.5. The Empirical School, or the Science of Management 470
6.6. School of Social Systems 480
6.7. New School of Management Science 511
6.8. Situational approach to management 521
Control questions
Bibliography
Chapter 7. DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCIENTIFIC FOUNDATIONS OF MANAGEMENT IN THE USSR
7.1. The formation of Soviet managerial thought in the 20s of the XX century. 534
7.2. Soviet management thought in the 1930s-50s in 562
7.3. G.H. Popov on the development of Soviet managerial thought in the 1960s 571
7.4. Development of management problems in the 70-90s 620
Security questions 632
References 633
Chapter 8. MODERN MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS 637
8.1. Motivation - as content and as a process 637
8.2. Leadership Concepts: From Leadership to Learning 651
8.3. Instrumental control concepts 681
8.4. Organizational Culture: Measurement and Management 694
Security questions 720
Bibliography
ANNEX 1.
List of areas of scientific research, topics of term papers and theses and scientific abstracts-reports on IUM 724
APPENDIX 2
Characteristics of the process of development and decision-making on the "Regulations on provincial and county zemstvo institutions 727

Part I. GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT OF FOREIGN MANAGEMENT THOUGHT FROM ANCIENT TIMES TO THE END OF THE XIX CENTURY
Chapter 2. ORIGINS OF MANAGEMENT THOUGHT (4th millennium BC -V century). 70
2.1. Origins and sources of managerial thought..70
2.2. Ideas of management in the writings of the thinkers of Ancient Egypt and Asia Minor. 86
2.3. Development of management problems in ancient China.. 94
2.4. Views on the management of the state economy in ancient India.. 125
2.5. Development of Management Problems in Ancient States (Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome) .143
2.6. Management thought in the Old Testament and the New Testament. 163
Security questions 169
References 170
Chapter 3
3.1. Origins and sources of managerial thought in the X-XVIII centuries 172
3.2. Management thought in Byzantium.
3.3. Management thought in feudal Western Europe and England (X-XVI centuries) ..
3.4. Origins and sources of IUM in the 18th-19th centuries
3.5. Entrepreneurial Ideas in Western Europe
3.6. Classics of political economy on management (XVIII-XIX centuries)
3.7. R. Owen and social responsibility of business.
3.8. Ch. Babbage on specialization and division of physical and mental labor..
3.9. E. Yur on the replacement of labor by capital.
3.10. "The Doctrine of Management" by L. von Stein.
Control questions.
Bibliography .

Part II. MANAGEMENT THOUGHT IN RUSSIA (IX-XIX CENTURIES)
Chapter 4. THE ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF MANAGEMENT THOUGHT IN RUSSIA (IX-XVIII centuries) 252
4.1. Sources and Origins of IUM in Russia..252
4.2. "Russian Truth" ..271
4.3. Ideas for organizing local government in the Moscow centralized state.275
4.4. On the methods of private management in "Domostroy" ..281
4.5. The most important factors in the development of managerial thought in Russia in the 17th century.285
4.6. Y. Krizhanich 290
4.7. A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin.303.
4.8. The reforms of Peter I as a stage in the development of managerial thought.311
4.9. I.T. Pososhkov.315
4.10. M.V. Lomonosov.. 324
4.11. Catherine II, other Russian emperors and Russian entrepreneurship.327
Control questions.
Bibliography .
Chapter 5. MANAGEMENT THOUGHT IN RUSSIA in the 19th century
5.1. The main directions of IUM in Russia in the 19th century342
5.2. Characteristics and achievements of noble management thought.345
5.3. Management ideas of revolutionary democrats and populists362
5.4. Discussion of production management issues at trade and industrial congresses.390
5.5. Management training courses at Russian universities…400
5.6. The contribution of Russian statesmen to the development of management ideas.424
Control questions
Bibliography

Part III. NEW AND MODERN HISTORY OF MANAGEMENT THOUGHT
Chapter 6. WESTERN SCHOOLS OF MANAGEMENT XX in 436
6.1. F. Taylor School of Scientific Management.439
6.2. Organization and principles of effectiveness of X. Emerson ....449
6.3. A. Fayol Administrative School.454
6.4. School of Human Relations 461
6.5. Empirical School, or Science of Management.. 470
6.6. School of Social Systems 480
6.7. New School of Management Science.511
6.8. Situational approach to management.521
Control questions..
Bibliography .
Chapter 7. DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCIENTIFIC FOUNDATIONS OF MANAGEMENT IN THE USSR
7.1. The Formation of Soviet Management Thought in the 20s of XX century534
7.2. Soviet management thought in the 1930s-50s in 562
7.3. G.H. Popov on the development of Soviet managerial thought
in the 1960s..571
7.4. Development of management problems in the 70-90s 620
Security questions 632
References 633
Chapter 8. MODERN MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS.. 637
8.1. Motivation is both content and process. 637
8.2. Leadership Concepts: From Leadership to Learning.. 651
8.3. Instrumental concepts of management.681
8.4. Organizational culture: measurement and management. 694
Security questions 720
Bibliography

ANNEX 1.
List of directions of scientific researches, topics of term papers and diploma works and scientific abstracts-reports on IUM. 724

APPENDIX 2
Characteristics of the process of development and decision-making on the "Regulations on provincial and county zemstvo institutions ... .727

Textbook for universities M: Infra-M, 2005. , 731 pages.

For the first time in domestic and foreign educational literature, the process of the genesis, formation and development of the centuries-old world history of managerial thought is reflected. The textbook presents both the origins of management thought dating back to the fifth millennium BC, and the latest management concepts and paradigms of the early 21st century. Not only the history of management science is described, but also the history of management ideas, views, theories that arose in order to solve real management problems.

For students, teachers and researchers specializing in the management of state, public and private organizations.

At all times, the management of organizations has been a complex process that combines elements of science and art. Today, this process has become even more complicated, primarily due to the abrupt, often unpredictable changes taking place both in the organizations themselves and in the external environment. The growth of knowledge about the behavior of an individual in organizations and social processes, the temporal and spatial extent of business processes, the constant expansion of the information field and the possibilities of information technologies in managing organizations, the multivariance of managerial decisions and the objective remoteness of their results - all these factors characterize the modern business environment. On the one hand, they expand the possibilities in the areas of activity of organizations, and on the other hand, they emphasize the need to increase the scientific validity of the choice and assessment of the consequences and aftereffects of the decisions made. Thus, despite the slogan "Management is dead", the role of the scientific component in the management of the organization is still very significant. The epigraph to this chapter emphasizes the importance of minimizing errors in management decisions made today, which is largely ensured by their scientific justification.
This circumstance, in turn, requires both the further development of the methodological foundations of management science and the solution of fundamental problems of management science proper. These include, for example, the still controversial question about the subject of science, about a number of categories and concepts of science; the problem of correlation of management science with other sciences; problems of methods for organizing complex scientific research, the relationship between art and science in management; the problem of measurements in the management of socio-economic objects. Even a cursory analysis of scientific papers and textbooks on management makes it possible to verify that there are different interpretations of the category "subject of management science", definitions of the terms "management", "management", "organization", "management system", "management functions", "organizational structure" , "management mechanism", "leadership", "organizational culture", "strategic management", "organizational behavior", "organizational development", "change management", "management effectiveness".

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Management theory

History of managerial thought

1. MANAGEMENT REVOLUTIONS

The history of the emergence and development of management is an evolutionary process, numbering at least 7 millennia and 5 management revolutions that radically changed the role and importance of management in the life of society.

Under managerial revolution understand the transition from one qualitative state of management to another.

1.1 First managerial revolution (religiously - a commercial)

The first revolution took place 4-5 thousand years ago - during the formation of slave-owning states on Ancient East. In Sumer, Egypt and Akkad, management historians noted the first transformation - the transformation of the caste of priests into a caste of religious functionaries, i.e. managers. This transformation was successful because the priests successfully reformulated religious principles. If earlier the gods demanded human sacrifices, now, as the priests declared, they are not needed. The gods began to bring not human life, but a symbolic sacrifice. It is sufficient if the faithful confine themselves to offering money, livestock, butter, handicrafts, and even pies.

As a result, a fundamentally new type of business people was born - not yet a commercial businessman or a capitalist entrepreneur, but no longer a religious figure, alien to any kind of profit. The tribute collected from the population, under the guise of performing a religious rite, was not wasted. She accumulated, exchanged and set to work. The resourceful Sumerian priests soon became the wealthiest and most powerful class. They cannot be called a class of owners, since what was sacrificed was the property of the gods, not people. It could not be appropriated for personal use explicitly. Money for the priests did not serve as an end in itself, it was a by-product of religious and state activities. After all, the priests, in addition to observing ritual honors, were in charge of collecting taxes, managed the state treasury, distributed the state budget, and were in charge of property affairs.

Clay tablets have survived, on which the priests of Sumer carefully kept legal, historical and business records. The priests diligently maintained business documentation, accounting accounts, carried out supply, control, planning and other functions. Today, these functions constitute the content of the management process.

side effect management activities priests - the emergence of writing. Remember the whole volume business information was impossible, besides it was necessary to make difficult calculations. From a purely utilitarian need, a written language was born, which later was mastered by the lower strata of the population. And again, the penetration of writing into the masses did not occur as a charitable action of priests who decided to enlighten the Sumerians. Ordinary Sumerians mastered the skills of the written language to the extent that they had to constantly respond to various kinds of requests, official orders, litigate, calculate their budget.

1.2 Second managerial revolution (secular - administrative)

The second revolution in management occurred about a thousand years after the first and is associated with the name of the Babylonian ruler Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC). An outstanding politician and commander, he subjugated neighboring Mesopotamia and Assyria. The administration of vast estates required an efficient administrative system by which the country could be successfully governed, not by personal arbitrariness or tribal law, but by uniform written laws. The famous set of Hammurabi, containing 285 laws governing various spheres of society, is a valuable monument of ancient Eastern law and a stage in the history of management.

The outstanding significance of the Hammurabi code, which regulated the whole variety of social relations between social groups of the population, is that it created the first formal system of administration. Even if Hammurabi had not done anything else, then in this case, he would have taken his rightful place among the historical personalities of management. But he went further and developed an original leadership style, constantly maintaining in his subjects the image of a caring guardian and protector of the people. For the traditional method of leadership that characterized past dynasties of kings, this was a clear innovation.

1.3 The third managerial revolution (production - construction)

Only a thousand years after the death of Hammurabi, Babylon revives its former glory and again reminds of itself as a center for the development of management practice. King Nebuchadnezzar II (605-562 BC) was the author not only of the projects of the Tower of Babel and hanging gardens, but also of the production control system in textile factories and granaries. An outstanding commander, he became famous as a talented builder who erected a temple to the god Marduk and the famous ziggurats - cult towers.

In textile factories, Nebuchadnezzar used colored labels. With their help, yarn was tagged, coming into production every week. Such a control method made it possible to determine exactly how long a particular batch of raw materials was in the factory. In more modern form This method is also used in modern industry.

1.4 The fourth managerial revolution (industrial)

The fourth revolution in management practically coincides with the great industrial revolution of the 18th-19th centuries, which stimulated the development of European capitalism. If earlier certain discoveries that enriched management occurred from case to case and were separated from each other by significant intervals of time, now they have become commonplace. The Industrial Revolution had a much more significant impact on the theory and practice of management than all previous revolutions.

As the industry outgrew the boundaries of first manufactory (the hand factory) and then the old factory system (the early machine factory of the 19th century) and the modern system of equity capital matured, the owners moved further and further away from doing business as economic activity aimed at making a profit. The owner-manager, that is, the capitalist, was gradually replaced by hundreds, if not thousands, of shareholders. A new, diversified (dispersed) form of ownership has been established. Instead of a single owner, many shareholders appeared, that is, joint (share) owners of capital. Instead of a single owner-manager, there are several hired managers - non-owners, recruited from all, and not just from the privileged classes.

The new property system accelerated the development of industry. It led to the separation of management from production and capital, and then to the transformation of administration and management into an independent economic force.

Administration is the formulation of the general goals and policies of the company, and management is the control over their implementation. This is the original and narrowly technical meaning of management.

The volume of production increased, the rate of capital turnover accelerated, banking operations expanded, the scope of sales of products, marketing arose. Management could no longer remain the sphere of application of naive consciousness and common sense. It required special knowledge, skills and abilities of professionals. Management turned into a set of techniques, methods, principles, tools and techniques, the use of which had to be specially trained.

In the factory era (XIX century), the work of a manager was limited to managing the production process, which was very far from the scientific organization of labor. But later, management breaks down into many sub-functions - planning, office work, sales, purchases, organization, statistical analysis of production. The language of conjecture and intuition acquired a clear calculation basis - everything was translated into formulas and money. A modern enterprise budget system is being created.

Thus, each production process has become an independent function and sphere of activity of management. But as soon as there were a lot of functions, the problem of their coordination and connection on a new basis arose. And how to combine them? It turns out that there is only one way - assigning a staff of specialists (department, subdivision) to each function, and transferring general coordination functions to the manager. This is how the prototypes of the current personnel departments, the planning department, OTiZ, the department of the chief technologist, etc., arose.

So, in the beginning, the manager and the owner are the same person. Then management is separated from capital and production, instead of one capitalist-manager, two communities arise: shareholders and hired managers. There are many managers, and each one oversees a specific function: planning, production, supply. After that, the function of each specialist manager is again split up and instead of one person, a community of specialists appears, which form a planning bureau, a design department, and a control bureau. The manager now coordinates the work of specialists. Scientists have invented special tools for coordinating people's activities, in particular, a decision-making system, determining the goals of a company's policy, and a management philosophy.

1.5 Fifth managerial revolution (bureaucratic)

The Industrial Revolution and classical capitalism as a whole still remained the time of the bourgeois. The manager has not yet become either a professional or a main character. Only the era of monopoly capitalism gave the first business schools and a system of professional training for managers. With the emergence of the class of professional managers and its separation from the class of capitalists, it became possible to speak of a new radical revolution in society, which must be considered the fifth revolution in management.

The Industrial Revolution proved that purely managerial functions are no less important than financial or technical ones. Although many, including Adam Smith, doubted this: for them, in the middle of the 19th century, the manager-manufacturer (capitalist) remained the main character. Already K. Marx, who wrote Capital in the late 60s of the XIX century, did not believe in the historical perspective of the capitalist, in his ability to effectively manage a highly complex economy and high-tech production.

However, over time, theorists and practitioners begin to realize that the capitalist in the management of production is by no means the most important figure. Apparently, he should give up his captain's bridge. But to whom exactly? Marx believed that the proletariat, and was not mistaken, since it was the proletariat that won the dominant positions in the socialist countries, including the USSR.

The emergence of equity capital, the emergence of huge corporations, the centralization of banks and transport networks made the figure of the individual owner superfluous. His place is taken by a bureaucrat - a government official. The enlargement of enterprises and the emergence of a joint-stock form of ownership contribute to the ousting of the individual capitalist from production in the same way as manual labor superseded by the machine.

The rise of the bureaucracy actually reflected the fact that, in twentieth-century capitalism, the management of production ceased to be a direct function of the ownership of tools. Yes, and the property itself is losing its individual-private character, becoming more and more corporate-collective. "The people who dominate the bureau" monopolize the management technique and channels of communication. Increasingly, they classify information under the pretext of "official secrets", create such mechanisms to maintain hierarchical structure, which exclude competition, elections and evaluation of employees on business qualities.

Bureaucracy is incompatible with the participation of all or most members of the organization in making managerial decisions. She considers only herself competent in such actions, believing that management is the function of professionals. Officials are, first of all, those who have undergone special training and have been managing all their lives.

Thus, the history of world management includes several managerial revolutions, which mark turning points in the theory and practice of management (Table 1).

Management revolutions in the history of management development

Table 1

The listed managerial revolutions correspond to the main historical milestones of the change of cultures and social classes: the power of the priests is gradually being replaced by the domination of the military and civil aristocracy, which was replaced by the enterprising bourgeois, and the latter were replaced in the historical arena by hired workers, or "management proletarians", after which the social and managerial the cycle began again, but on a qualitatively new level.

2. MANAGEMENT THOUGHT AND PRACTICE IN EARLY ORIENTAL CIVILIZATIONS

Management as a special kind of human activity appears with the first artificial communities (hunting group, neighborhood community, then the state). It is with the creation of the first states that the first layer of professional managers appears - managers or social managers.

It seems that we have every reason to call the first rulers managers, since their organizational activities were aimed at social organizations which at the same time were economic organizations.

The formation of statehood led to significant changes in management practice. And the first states were created in Mesopotamia. States were complex organizations, which required the development of management practices.

The original division of labor was based on sex and age, and was associated with physiological differences and the ability to perform different kinds works.

Men were employed in physically hard work, women and adolescents in lighter ones, besides, adolescents performed those activities that required less knowledge and experience, and women performed the duties of maintaining the hearth and caring for young children.

It should be noted that, social division of labor- this is the selection of a valuable group or layer.

By the end of the IV millennium BC. e., the labor of each person began to produce much more than was necessary for his own subsistence. In addition to the workers, the community was able to feed not only the disabled, not only to create a reliable food reserve, but also to free part of its able-bodied people from agricultural labor.

Naturally, at the first appearance of the surplus product, its size was insufficient for the excess to be distributed to everyone; but at the same time, not everyone in the territorial community had the same opportunity to provide for themselves at the expense of others.

On the one hand, the military leader and his associates found themselves in the most favorable position, and on the other, the chief priest, the priests, who, in addition to providing protection for the spirits of nature, were the organizers of irrigation, that is, the very basis of material well-being. The military leader and the priest could coincide in one person.

For the best and greatest development of the productive forces and the cultural and ideological growth of society, it is necessary to have persons exempted from productive labor. This does not mean that society consciously frees the best organizers from productive labor; those in whose hands fist, armed or ideological power. These people take on organizational tasks.

The first people whom society liberatedfrom direct productive labor, were organizers, administrators, social managers, who in those distant times were called priests and leaders, then - kings and pharaohs, and finally, today - presidents of states, speakers of parliaments, presidents of campaigns and managers.

The role of managers (rulers, administrators), as well as management in the history of society, turned out to be extremely important. Here is the opinion of a well-known authority in the field management consulting- Peter Drucker: “Management is a special kind of activity that turns an unorganized crowd into an efficient, focused and productive group. Management as such is also a stimulating element social change and an example of significant social change."

2.1 Mesopotamian civilization

In ancient Mesopotamia, the greatest structural and technological changes take place in the public sector, especially in temple households.

The public sector was replenished through the purchase of communal lands, which led to greater independence of the rulers from the communities, the quantitative growth of managerial personnel and an increase in labor productivity. They noted an increasing specialization of labor, an increase in the number employees and higher labor productivity. All this was the result of effective management, which was carried out by the most qualified managers of that time - the servants of the temples.

Changes in the management system of the national economy took place during the reign of Gudea, in the second half of the XXII century. BC, in Lagash.

Analyzing Gudea's reforms, from the standpoint of the theory of management of the national economy as an organization, it can be noted that in his activities the priority of the common goal over the goals of the constituent entities of the economy is clearly visible.

This can be seen from the following features:

· Organization of central handicraft workshops, which provided their products to state structures, temples and the workers themselves;

· Changes in the traditional administrative structure and alternate supply of sacrificial animals for the central temples;

· The need to attract community members and workers of the royal economy in the state economy;

· The extension of bureaucratic power to community members.

This means that Gudea practically carried out the process of creating a state, as he subjugated all the indigenous inhabitants of his state association to power.

An interesting way out of the crisis was demonstrated by the Mesopotamian civilization in the Old Babylonian period in the 17th-20th centuries. BC.

The basis of the Mesopotamian civilization is the irrigation system, which fell into disrepair due to long wars. All this had a painful effect on the state and private economy.

The state provided the opportunity to restore the economy to entrepreneurs whose energy was invested in small farms and enterprises. A significant part of state lands, craft workshops of trading enterprises came under the control of private individuals; even the distribution of priestly offices was transformed from a function of state power into an object of trade, private agreements and wills. Many types of taxes were also farmed out to private individuals.

All these measures had a multifaceted impact on the processes and mechanism of the national economy.

The turbulent economic life, the increased security in a single centralized state, attracted to it many immigrants from the nearest surrounding world, which ensured the influx of creative energy, material resources and cheap labor. And as a result, in the period under review, there is an expansion of sown areas (development of fallow and virgin lands), the flourishing of such an intensive branch of the economy as horticulture (cultivation of date palm), large yields of cereals (barley) and oilseeds (sesame) crops.

In ancient Mesopotamia, along with the “great organizations” (the palace and the temple), there were also professional associations: associations of merchants and artisans, built like guilds, as well as professional groups of soothsayers and highly qualified specialists in the expulsion of evil spirits.

2.2 Egyptian civilization

The Egyptians made a significant contribution to the development of management practice and theory in the 4th millennium BC. In their society there was a huge administrative apparatus, where the main goal was order, a high degree of regulation of public life, as well as the highest centralization and total control.

In the multi-stage pyramid, the social and economic management of Egypt, it is especially necessary to single out the most numerous layer of professional managers - scribes, who, on behalf of the pharaoh, carefully monitored the movement of all material values, the formation and expenditure of the state budget, periodically conducted population censuses, redistributed ordinary people by profession.

Egyptian management, already at an early stage of its development, is characterized by specialization, both in terms of types of work and in certain areas, which today we call management functions.

Numerous staff of various kinds of employees: scribes, overseers, accountants, keepers of documents, managers, headed by a "housekeeper", who carry out the overall management of the entire economic life, organize and control the work of numerous workers, which led to the beginning of the birth of the function of modern business.

The chief manager, on whom the fate of the entire civilization depended, was the pharaoh, who received a good professional managerial education from an early age in the family. There are cases when, at the age of ten, they took upon themselves the burden of governing the country. The pharaoh delegated some of his powers to his first assistant - chati.

Under Chati, a complex bureaucratic system was created to:

measuring the level of the river on which the entire economy depended,

Forecasting grain harvest and income,

allocation of these revenues to various departments of the state,

· Supervision of all industry and trade.

Here were some fairly successful methods (for the time):

· Management by means of forecasting and planning of works;

· Division of work between different people and departments;

· Education of a professional administrator for coordination and control;

· Employee motivation.

Work groups were a characteristic form of labor organization. These workers were deprived of ownership of the tools and means of production, they received them from the noble warehouses and industries. The workers were obliged to perform a certain lesson for the household to which they were subordinate; produced in excess of the lesson, was useful with the right to dispose of this share of the product.

Thus, ancient Egyptian society enriched modern theory management of original findings, among which we can distinguish the definition of such management functions as:

· Planning;

Organization;

· Control;

· Awareness of the advantages of centralization and delegation of authority;

· Focus on joint search for solutions and reaching a compromise in conflict situations.

2.3 Chinese civilization

Around the same period as in Egypt, the basic functions and principles of management were understood in ancient China. Along with the recognition of the need for planning, organization, command and control, the Chinese identified the principles of specialization, decentralization and plurality of approaches in solving identical problems.

Seeing that management is a tool for influencing public life, the Chinese created academies, whose graduates became managers. Thus, two millennia before the advent of modern management, they began the specialized training of social and economic managers.

Take, for example, the situation that developed by the beginning of the 6th century BC, when, as a result of decentralization, the country was divided into many kingdoms. During the period of decentralization of many kingdoms and the strengthening of the warring kingdoms, fertile ground was formed for experiments, for the search for new social structures, a new organization of the national economy. Chinese civilization and its system of government is characterized by exceptional pragmatism.

Chinese civilization and its system of government is characterized by exceptional pragmatism. Chinese philosophy was born in the middle of the first millennium BC, in an effort to find an answer to the vital question of the organization of society. In the discussion of the problems of managing society, such philosophical schools as Legalism, Modism, Taoism, and Confucianism were born.

Chinese pragmatism also affected the fact that philosophers, as advisers and rulers, participated in a practical, experimental search for the best management systems.

An extremely important circumstance is that the ancient thinkers of China from the very beginning proposed a multiple approach to solving the problem. For centuries, there has been an extensive discussion in China on problems in the management of society, which has greatly influenced modern Chinese society, right up to the present day.

In the middle of the first millennium BC, a system of ranks was introduced, which were assigned not on the basis of hereditary law, but for military merit. Later, the acquisition of ranks for money was allowed.

Today this phenomenon is called bribery. It was Shang Yang, who proceeded from the recognition of the evil nature of man, who found an extraordinary way to legally solve the problem and showed that a legal solution, unlike an illegal one, can be beneficial to society.

2.4 Indian civilization

A significant contribution to the development of the practice and theory of management was made by another eastern civilization - Indian. She is characterized by:

· The relationship of the ideological life of society and economic;

· Active state regulation;

· Control over economic life;

· Multilateral state support for new economic entities.

The Indians created the first scientific treatise and textbook known to us on the organization of the national economy, entrepreneurship and management.

The Indians have enriched the world practice and discoveries in working with information, shaping public opinion in order to effectively manage projects, creating a staff apparatus, and irrational decision-making methods.

Let us dwell in more detail on some findings of the Indian system of social and economic management. A distinctive feature of Indian society is a peculiar, unparalleled system in the world - varnas, which later developed into a caste system, which nowhere acquired such a complete form and did not last as long as here.

In principle, each system strives to maintain a certain stability in the structure and mechanism of control. This allows you to save significant resources due to a certain self-organization. Innovations, on the other hand, require huge expenditures of material, human and, especially, qualified management personnel. This explains the long-term vitality of the class division of society.

In this regard, Indian civilization has created a caste system that is unique in its vitality and has stability in space. If the estates allowed a certain exchange of their constituent elements, then the castes excluded such.

A contradiction to one of the basic laws of the development of an organization is self-organization, which is determined by the degree of openness to the outside world, to external influences. The castes, like the varnas that preceded them, were among the most closed organizations. Suffice it to recall that one cannot become a member of a caste except by birth.

In India, economic activity was strongly regulated. The greatest contribution to the development of agriculture was made by the construction of irrigation facilities by the state and the provision of farmers with the necessary amount of water. The water tax was equal to the fifth, fourth and even third of the entire crop, which was collected from the irrigated area, which was fenced with city walls, where not only priests, nobility and warriors settled, but also artisans, merchants, etc.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, Indian civilization gives the first known textbook of management, called "Arthashastra", which means "the doctrine of the economy and public administration."

It is a systematic presentation of the basic principles and methods of management, job descriptions of officials who organized and controlled the activities of the main industries and enterprises. Therefore, "Arthashastra" can be called the first management textbook.

3. MANAGEMENT THOUGHT AND PRACTICE IN THE EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION (PRE-INDUSTRIAL PERIOD)

From the very beginning of its development, European civilization has shown a number of distinctive features in the management of the economic and social life of society.

The ancient period of European culture is interesting not only as our past, but also as the formation of many of the principles, methods and traditions that exist today in the field of management.

3.1 Ancient Greece

In ancient Greece, two and a half thousand years ago, the formation of a modern European civilization with a market economy, a high culture of democratic governance and the free development of the individual begins. The main economic element of Greek society was the small proprietor.

Ancient Greece was characterized by decentralization of society and economy. It manifested itself, first of all, in the many Greek states themselves - policies, of which there were more than 200 on a small peninsula and adjacent islands.

The Greek city-states differed from each other in a number of factors, the most extreme of which were the democratic and oligarchic forms of organization, which were classically reflected in Athens and Sparta, respectively. In both policies there is enough a large number of the non-civilian population, which was in varying degrees of dependence on the polis civil collective, but in each of them their own systems of exploitation of slaves were established.

In the VIII-VII centuries. BC e. Athens became a democratic state. In 621 BC recorded in Athens for the first time existing laws. A further change in the mechanism of governance of Athenian society is associated with the name of Solon, whom ancient historiography portrays as an ideal legislator who stood above classes and estates and had the goal of reconciling them.

Solon's reforms

Based on the popular assembly, Solon carried out a number of economic and political reforms. The most important economic reform was the abolition of debts, which freed a mass of debtor slaves and eased the position of the peasantry. It was forbidden to guarantee a debt by the person of the debtor and sell him into slavery for debts.

Further, Solon introduced a law on the freedom of wills, which approved private property and allowed the division of ancestral possessions, while earlier the land was inherited by the genus and was not subject to alienation.

As a result of Solon's reforms, a layer of small and medium-sized free landowners appears in Attica - an integral part of any city-state of antiquity, its social basis.

Among the economic measures carried out by Solon, one should note a law that prohibited the export of bread from Attica and encouraged the export of olive oil. In the language of today, this means the intensification of economic management, a more rational use of resources.

Encouraging the cultivation of intensive crops - olives, grapes, etc. - Solon issued laws regulating the planting of trees, irrigation, rules on the joint use of wells that previously belonged to individual clans or families, etc. The cultivation of intensive crops was available not only to large landowners, but also to the middle strata of the demos, in whose interests these laws were carried out.

The activities of Solon contributed to the transformation of Attica from a country of arable farming into a country whose economy was dominated by highly intensive horticultural crops, which produced significant marketable products.

In order to encourage and develop trade and handicraft production, Solon introduced a law according to which a son could refuse to help his aged father if he did not teach him the craft.

Under Solon in Athens, the units of measures and weights were unified.

Thus, in contrast to the East, the small private sector was the main sector here.

The economic independence of a small family, a separate full-fledged individual, that is, the democratization of economic life and the presence of a wide layer of citizens - owners (in accordance with the current terminology - the middle class) should inevitably result in the democratization of the entire social system.

The administration of the policy was formed exclusively through elections with the participation of all citizens.

Reforms of Pericles

To create a real opportunity to participate in public institutions and overcome indifference to public affairs, Pericles introduced a fee for the administration of jury duty in courts, in meetings.

In 451, Pericles renewed the old law, which limited the right of citizenship to the condition of obligatory descent from both parents of Athenian citizens. The law stated: "Only people descended from both Athenians can be Athenians." The law caused a lot of misunderstandings and lawsuits and all kinds of deceptions and frauds. About 5,000 people caught cheating were sold into slavery. Full-fledged citizens turned out to be only a little more than 14 thousand. (Aristotle mentions the figure of 20 thousand, determining the number of Athenian citizens-officials, who were largely supported by contributions from members of the maritime union).

Athenian democracy has always been a minority democracy. Pericles is also credited with the introduction of theatrical money, issued to citizens for the purchase of a stamp or a ticket for theatrical performances, which was a natural continuation and development of payments and for the performance of public duties, especially for military service, established during the Greco-Persian wars.

A wealthy part of the citizens carried all sorts of public duties in the form of equipping military courts, arranging spectacles, paying for choirs and sending government positions associated with high spending. If we compare the number of citizens with the number of positions in Athens, we can assume that almost all citizens - city dwellers and a significant part of rural residents participated in the direct administration of the state.

The authorities of the Greek city-states, as a rule, intervened in local economic life, especially taking care of the uninterrupted supply of the market with bread. There was a fight against speculation. The order and trade in the markets in Athens were observed by specially elected overseers, foreign trade - by trustees of the trading port chosen for this purpose.

The most typical form of organization economic activity in the craft and in the manufacturing industry there was an ergasterium (handicraft workshops). The profitability of ergasteria was very high: the cost of a skilled slave in the V-1U centuries. BC. fully paid off for 2-3 years of his work in a craft workshop. From this it follows that the income of the slave workshops was very significant, with a surplus covering both the cost of labor and all the expenses associated with the organization of the ergaster. Ergasterium brought no less income than "sea trade", that is, the most profitable article of ancient commerce.

For Attica and Athens, the period of the "fiftieth anniversary" was characterized by the coexistence of slave and free labor in the craft. The workshops of artisans who worked personally or with the help of one or two slaves were small enterprises that existed in the presence of large and even very large workshops - a kind of slave manufactories of antiquity.

But in general, under Pericles, free labor was maintained by purely artificial measures and the norm for the use of slave labor was established: the number of slaves working on large public buildings was reduced to about a quarter of the total number of workers.

Socrates and Aristotle

It was Socrates who discovered that managerial abilities can be transferred from public to private affairs. In his early study on the universalization of management, Socrates observed that management in private affairs differs from public affairs only in magnitude; both cases deal with the management of people, and if someone could not manage his private affairs, he certainly cannot manage public affairs.

However, the Greeks may have deviated too much from Socrates' rules of universality. Military and municipal leaders changed regularly, creating chaos in government affairs and creating problems during times of threat from the better organized, more professional armies of Sparta and Macedonia.

In his work Politics, Aristotle wrote: "He who has never learned obedience cannot lead." In his discussion of the management of the household, he, like Socrates, spoke of the similarity between the art of government and the household. Both are related to the management of property, slaves and free citizens, with only one difference in the size of the total transactions.

However, Greek economic philosophy was largely anti-business, and trade and commerce were considered beneath the dignity of the Greek man.

Works, being ignoble for the Greek aristocrat and philosopher, must be performed by slaves and disrespectful citizens. Workers and merchants were deprived of citizenship in the Greek democracy, due to low respect for workers and merchant professions.

But unlike the Jewish tradition, the Greeks were actively engaged in financial and credit activities. Attica and Athens became the most important trade and craft center not only in Balkan Greece, but throughout the ancient Greek world. The most common financial and usurious operation in the coastal cities of Greece was "sea loans", i.e. the return of money against the security of goods or at high ("marine") interest to ship owners (18% per annum in those days was not considered too high a norm).

This main operation was joined by a mass of various small transactions and machinations. The Greeks were not very law-abiding citizens: deceit, forgery, slander and a mass of all kinds of slander and denunciations form the content of endless small and large judicial litigations, with which Greek literature of the 4th century is so rich. From the speeches of the speakers it is clear that in addition to giving money at sea interest, they also speculated on the exchange rate, which, with the multitude of coins in circulation, was a very profitable occupation.

The development of monetary transactions led to the expansion of the activities of change shops (meals), which turned into a kind of banking offices.

Despite the anti-trade philosophy, the Greek era illustrates the first sprouts of democracy, the advent of decentralized government, the first attempts to consolidate the freedom of the individual, the beginning of the scientific method of solving problems, and also, an early, albeit superficial, view that the management of various organizations requires the same managerial skills.

3.2 Ancient Rome

Rome's contribution to our heritage lies chiefly in the law and forms of government that were solutions to the problem of establishing order.

Roman law became the model for later civilizations, and the Roman separation of the legislative and executive powers provided the model with a system of balance and control for constitutional forms of government.

The Romans were ingenious in organizing the system, the military autocracy held the empire in an iron fist. For an authoritarian organizational structure there were two fundamental concepts - discipline and functionality. The latter carried out the division of work between various military and government agencies, the former formed a strict framework and hierarchy of power to ensure the performance of functions.

The Romans inherited the Greeks' disregard for trade and introduced the occupation of commerce to Greek and Eastern freed slaves. Growing foreign trade required commercial standardization, so the state developed a system of measures, weights, and money.

The first prototype of a corporate organization appeared in the form of joint stock companies that sold shares in order to fulfill government contracts, to support the war effort.

A highly specialized labor force, with a few exceptions, dominated the small shops as independent artisans selling products for the market rather than for the individual buyer.

Free workers formed guilds (colleges), but they existed for social purposes and shared profits, such as paying funeral expenses, rather than setting wage levels, hours, and working conditions.

The state regulated every aspect of Roman economic life: levying tariffs on trade, imposing fines on monopolists, regulating guilds, and using their income to fight numerous wars.

Large organizations could not exist, because. the state prohibited joint stock companies for any purpose other than the execution of government contracts.

In the II-I centuries. BC e. the owners of villas and workshops strive both to obtain a greater surplus product and to realize it in money. The desire to obtain a larger surplus product led to:

the growth of entrepreneurship in society;

complication of the internal structure of the economy;

increased exploitation of slaves.

With a developed system of slavery, there was a transition from small-scale production (in agriculture and handicrafts) to a larger, centralized economy, where simple and, to some extent, complex labor cooperation was used. If under the patriarchal system the dominant type of economy was a small plot or workshop, where 2-5 people worked, then in the II-I centuries. BC e. they are replaced by estates of 100 - 250 yugers of land with a workforce of 13 - 20 units.

The Roman agronomists Cato and Varro could not imagine the existence of a profitable economy without slave labor. They calculated how many slaves could work a given amount of land.

In order for the slave to work constantly, the landowners appointed numerous bosses and controllers, who forced the slave to work with the threat of punishment. On the other hand, especially diligent slaves were encouraged with large rations, good clothes, even small property (for example, a couple of sheep, utensils). Such property was called peculium; the lord had the right to take away the peculia at any time.

The Roman slave owners developed a system of work norms. The development of slavery thus led to the abandonment of small-scale farming, the transition to larger-scale production and resulted in a general intensification of the economy, which led to the flourishing of the Roman Agriculture, craft and construction.

Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian and his reforms

The Roman emperor Octavian and his reform activities are seen today as a very interesting and exceptionally competent example of change. He managed to almost completely change the system of government of the country, without causing resistance.

Returning to Italy in 29 BC. Octavian revised the composition of the Roman Senate, which was replenished with loyal people, and his common list reduced from 1000 to 600 members.

In the same year, in a solemn atmosphere with the distribution of large gifts to the population of Rome, several triumphs of Octavian were celebrated in honor of his many victories, which earned him popularity among many ordinary citizens. The reformed senate and grateful people decreed a number of honors to the new ruler, and above all, he was given the permanent title of emperor, which was considered part of his personal name (now the new ruler was officially called Emperor Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian).

In January 27 B.C. Octavian, at a specially assembled meeting of the Senate, renounced supreme power, all his posts, announced the restoration of traditional republican government and his desire to retire to private life. The renunciation of power was a successful and well-thought-out staging. The Senate and the people began to beg him not to give up power, not to leave the Republic.

Yielding to the “order” of the Senate, Octavian formalized his supreme power in the spirit of the old Roman traditions, carefully avoiding titles that were odious in society. The main components of Octavian's power were a set of several higher magistracies, familiar to the public consciousness, but collectively creating the supreme power.

In the period from 27 to 23 BC. Octavian combined in his hands the powers of the consul, the people's tribune, he was put at the head of the Senate list and became, as it were, the chairman of the supreme body of the Roman Republic, the permanent title of emperor secured his rights as commander in chief of the armed forces.

The traditional organ of the republican system - a confident people's assembly - was skillfully adapted to the emerging monarchical institutions and became part of them.

More complex were the legal relations between Octavian and the Roman Senate. The Senate was the personification of the republican system as such, and Octavian pursued a very cautious policy towards him of gradually reducing his competence, outwardly leaving him great rights.

During the reign of Octavian, the senate received additional rights in particular the judiciary. The Roman Senate, with great declared power, which was, as it were, equal to the power of Octavian, was actually included in the system of emerging monarchical institutions as its organic part, although Augustus showed great tact in respecting the external prerogatives of the senate.

Of course, not all government issues, especially complex and difficult ones, could be discussed in the Senate, consisting of 600 people. And Octavian began to gather narrow meetings of his closest friends to discuss some delicate matters, which were called the council of the princeps.

The council of the princeps under Octavian was not official government agency, but in the circle of Octavian's close advisers, many state affairs were discussed. The council of the princeps could seriously compete with the official Roman Senate as an organ of real power in the state.

To manage the imperial provinces, Octavian appointed governors who bore the title of imperial legates. They were assisted by so-called procurators, who dealt mainly with financial matters, but sometimes ruled small provincial areas, such as the famous Pontius Pilate, who ruled Palestine at the time of Jesus Christ.

By the end of many years of reign, Octavian managed to create the foundations of the future monarchical system, which entered into world history under the name of the Roman Empire.

This form of monarchy grew out of the Roman state structures proper, the dominant ideas, which gave the imperial regime, so to speak, a national character, although one cannot deny the influence on its formation of the Hellenistic monarchical institutions or some of the tyrannical regimes of ancient Greece.

3.3 Medieval Europe

In many of its parameters, the economy of feudal European society is quite different from the slaveholding period that preceded it, as well as from the contemporary East.

This period of European history can only be compared with the recent past of the socialist countries in terms of the strength of the ideological influence on the economy. Here, more than in other areas, innovation seemed a monstrous sin. It endangered the economic, social and spiritual balance. Innovations met with violent or passive resistance from the masses.

Labor was not aimed at economic progress - neither individual nor collective. He assumed, in addition to religious and moral aspirations (to avoid idleness, which leads straight to the devil; to atone, by working in the sweat of his brow, original sin; to humble the flesh), as economic goals, ensuring his own existence and supporting those poor people who are unable to take care of themselves. yourself.

Even St. Thomas Aquinas formulated this idea in the Code of Theology: “Work has four purposes. First and foremost he must provide food; secondly, he must drive out idleness, the source of many evils; thirdly, he must curb lust by mortifying the flesh; fourthly, he allows you to do alms.

The economic goal of the medieval west is the creation of the necessary. The same medieval mentality was very clearly manifested in the management of the most developed and progressive branch of the national economy - handicraft production. A society that did not set the goal of developing its economy as efficient and obtaining more products could not pay attention to the development of managerial thought and practice.

The most common form of organization in medieval Europe was the guild. A shop is a corporation of small commodity producers. In the conditions of an extremely narrow market and the relative insignificance of demand, the workshop made every effort to ensure that production retained a small character, so that no one had the opportunity to turn his workshop into a larger enterprise and compete with other members of the workshop. To this end, the workshop limited the number of apprentices and apprentices that could be kept by one master.

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Trends in the development of management and the emergence of management in the ancient world. The evolution of managerial thought in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, the activities of prominent representatives. Origins and trends of Russian management, concepts.

Management existed and exists where people worked in groups. Considering the development of management theory and practice, several historical periods can be distinguished:

1) ancient period;

2) industrial period;

3) systematization period;

4) information period.

The history of world social governance includes several managerial revolutions that mark turning points in the theory and practice of management:

1) the first administrative revolution led to the emergence of the power of the priests and the birth of writing;

2) the second administrative revolution led to the establishment of a purely secular aristocratic government and is associated mainly with the name of the Babylonian king Hammurabi;

3) thanks to the third revolution in management, state planned methods of regulation were combined with production;

4) the fourth revolution, often called the industrial revolution, coincided in time with the birth of capitalism and the beginning of industrial progress;

5) the fifth managerial revolution was marked by the advent of a new social force - professional managers, a class of managers that became dominant in the management of material production and spiritual life.

The listed managerial revolutions correspond to the main historical milestones of the change of social classes: the power of the priests was replaced by the power of the aristocracy (mainly military), the power of the military and civil aristocracy was replaced by representatives of the enterprising bourgeoisie, who were replaced in the historical arena by hired workers.

Ancient period of development management began from 9 - 7 millennia BC. and continued until the beginning of the 18th century. The transition from an appropriating economy to a producing economy became the starting point in the emergence of management. In ancient Egypt, a wealth of experience in managing the state economy was accumulated, a state administrative staff developed by those standards and a service administrative apparatus was formed.

IN industrial period the development of ideas about public administration is associated with the name of A. Smith, who was a specialist in the field of administration, since he characterized the duties of the sovereign and made an analysis of various forms of division of labor. The teachings of R. Owen had a significant impact on the formation of many modern trends and schools of management. Especially relevant is Owen's idea of ​​humanizing production management.

Systematization period theory and practice of management fell on 1856 - 1960s. At this time, new directions, schools, trends are being formed, the scientific apparatus is being improved. What is now called management originated during the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century. The emergence of factories meant that large groups of people had to be employed, which in turn meant that individual owners could not oversee the activities of all the workers. Persons who represented the interests of the owner in the workplace began to emerge from among the best workers - managers.

In the 60s. 20th century starts information period theory and practice of management, which is based on the use of mathematical apparatus, with the help of which the integration of mathematical analysis and subjective decisions of managers is achieved. In the modern world, mathematical methods are used in all areas of management science.