This article presents an analysis of existing interpretations of the essence of the concepts of "fixed assets", "fixed assets" and "fixed capital", which are reflected in modern publications of specialists in various fields of economics, legislative and legal acts Russian Federation, carried out Comparative characteristics concepts and revealed the objective reasons for their confusion in modern economic practice. The author also considers relevant and practical approaches to the classification of material fixed assets: by industry, by purpose in the production process, by the method of impact on objects of labor, grouping in accordance with PBU 6 "Accounting for fixed assets", by the degree of use in the production process , by the presence of rights to objects, classification into movable and immovable property.

fixed assets

fixed assets

main capital

1. Microeconomics. Practical approach (Managerial Economics): textbook / A.G. Gryaznova, A.Yu. Yudanov and others - M.: KnoRus, 2017. - 682 p.

2. Decree of the State Standard of the Russian Federation of December 26, 1994 No. 359 “On the adoption of the All-Russian classifier of fixed assets (OK 013-94)”.

3. Order of Rosstandart dated December 12, 2014 No. 2018-st “On the adoption and implementation of the All-Russian classifier of fixed assets OK 013-2014 (SNA 2008)”.

4. Taylor L.D. Capital, Accumulation and Money: an Integration of Capital, Growth, and Monetary Theory / Lester D. Taylor. – 2nd edn. - Springer, 2013. - 278 p.

5. Vitokhina O.A., Slabinsky D.V. The concepts of "fixed assets", "fixed capital" and "fixed assets" in Russia and abroad / O.A. Vitokhina, D.V. Slabinsky // Bulletin of the Belgorod University consumer cooperation, 2005, No. 5. - S. 79–84.

6. Order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation dated March 30, 2001 No. 26n “On Approval of the Regulation on Accounting “Accounting for Fixed Assets” PBU 6/01”.

7. Order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation dated October 13, 2003 No. 91n “On Approval of Methodological Guidelines for Accounting of Fixed Assets”.

8. IFRS (IAS) 16 “Fixed Assets” (came into force in the Russian Federation by Order of the Ministry of Finance of Russia dated December 28, 2015 No. 217n).

9. Application of IFRS: in 3 hours (translated from English) / Ernst & Young (EY). - 7th ed., revised. and additional – M.: Alpina Publishers, 2017. – 3220 p.

10. Shokhin E.I. Corporate finance: textbook / ed. Shokhina E.I. – M.: KnoRus, 2016. – 318 p.

11. Savitskaya G.V. Complex analysis economic activity enterprises: Textbook / G.V. Savitskaya. – 6th ed., revised. and additional – M.: NITs Infra-M, 2013. – 607 p.

12. Civil Code of the Russian Federation (Part One) dated November 30, 1994 No. 51-FZ.

At the same time, the concept of "fixed assets" is used in such areas as accounting and tax accounting, and the term "fixed assets" - in statistics, economic theory and economic analysis.

The concept of "fixed assets" in the English professional terminological space does not have a clear distinction with the term "fixed assets", because when determining the unit of accounting for fixed assets in Russian system accounting the property approach is used, while in foreign accounting practice the financial approach is applied.

cornerstone modern economy there is a cycle of expanded reproduction of competitive goods and services, which, according to the postulates of economic theory, is a closed system of four transformational links - the stages of production, distribution, exchange and consumption. The basis of such a system is the production process, which in turn is determined by various factors, among which an important role is played by the means of labor, which are part of such concepts as "land" and "capital" used by the modern economic school. The relationship between the categories of "means of labor", "land" and "capital" is shown in fig. 1.

The means of labor, according to K. Marx, are a thing (a complex of things) placed by a person between themselves and the object of labor and serving as a conductor of its influence on this object.

There is a point of view that, in contrast to the objects of labor and work force as such, requiring renewal in each production cycle, the means of labor are characterized by repeated use in the process of production of products (performance of work, provision of services) in an unchanged natural-material form. According to the author, this interpretation cannot be considered correct due to the fact that in the original source (K. Marx "Capital. Critique of Political Economy. Volume III" (1894)) there is no direct indication of the life of the asset, and therefore, the means of labor can be included in the property of an economic entity with a turnover of less than one operating cycle - elements attributable to the material component working capital. In other words, the authors of this definition unreasonably identify the means of labor with one of the forms of their existence - the main funds of the organization, the analysis of the essence of which is part of the object of this study.

In economic practice, the term "fixed assets" is often confused with such concepts as "fixed assets" and "fixed capital", which de facto carry a different semantic load. For the purposes of this study, fixed capital should be understood as a financial category that reflects the part of the company's funds that permanent basis and for the long term invested in its fixed assets - part of the company's property used in its activities for several reproduction cycles. This type of capital is reflected in the liabilities of the balance sheet of an economic entity and is formed through two types of sources:

Sources allocated for the acquisition and creation of fixed assets of newly formed organizations;

Sources of simple and expanded reproduction of fixed assets of functioning organizations (see Appendix 1).

A similar approach to the interpretation of the concept of "fixed assets" underlies the construction of the All-Russian classifier of fixed assets OK 013-94 and its new version, put into effect on January 1, 2017 - OK 013-2014 (SNA 2008), according to the provisions of which fixed assets are produced assets repeatedly or permanently used for the production of goods, provision of market and non-market services for an extended period of time exceeding twelve calendar months. Within the framework of this definition, there is no clear indication of the tangible form of an asset, which gives reason to classify fixed assets into tangible and intangible
(see Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. Classification of fixed assets in OKOF

The identification of the terms "fixed assets" and "fixed capital" is primarily due to the difference in approaches to the essential interpretation of the category "capital" (see Table 1).

Table 1

Approaches to the essential interpretation of the category "capital"

Source: .

The concept of "fixed capital" should be considered from the standpoint of a mixed approach. Based on this, according to the author, in the process of circulation, the fixed capital splits, simultaneously appearing both in the form of active (real) capital and in the passive form, formed as a result of the distribution of the value of fixed assets through depreciation.

The forms of manifestation of fixed capital in its material active part are:

Functioning main production and non-production assets;

Objects of construction in progress - buildings, structures and other types of construction and installation works that have not been completed;

Uninstalled equipment for installation and commissioning;

Fixed assets accepted for operation, but mothballed and being modernized (reconstructed);

Fixed assets in mortgage transactions, etc. .

Fixed assets, in turn, represent the value expression of the organization's tangible fixed assets and an integral element of non-current assets reflected in its balance sheet. Thus, the concept of “fixed assets” used in Russian accounting practice should be interpreted as material carriers of fixed assets and considered as a synonym for the term “tangible fixed assets” (see Fig. 3).

One of the prerequisites for the confusion of the above categories is the attempts of Russian specialists in various fields of economics to adapt English terms in the framework of the translation of publications. scientific works foreign colleagues, accounting standards and titles of financial reporting items foreign companies. In the course of the study, an analytical review of Russian and English sources was carried out, offering definitions of the analogues of the triad "fixed assets" - "fixed assets" - "fixed capital" most frequently used in foreign economic literature, as a result of which the author came to the conclusion that unreasonable confusion of these concepts is a common phenomenon not only in Russian, but also in foreign accounting practice, arising due to the difference in approaches to determining the accounting unit of fixed assets (see Table 2).

The author proposes the analogs most appropriate to the economic content of the analyzed terms: material fixed assets (fixed assets) - fixed (tangible) assets, capital assets (capital goods); fixed capital - fixed capital.

As part of the raised problem of adapting foreign professional vocabulary to Russian accounting terminology, it should be noted that in the official translation of IAS (IAS) 16, from the author’s point of view, an incorrect replacement of the original category “property, plant and equipment” (real estate, machinery and equipment ), which most accurately characterizes the scope of the standard, the generalized concept of "fixed assets" (for more details, see Fig. 4).

Rice. 3. Differentiation between the categories "tangible fixed assets", "fixed assets" and "fixed capital"

table 2

Accounting unit of property, plant and equipment

Sources: .

Rice. 4. Scope of RAS for accounting for property, plant and equipment and IAS 16

On the basis of the approach formed by the author to the definition of the above triad of concepts, it seems expedient to classify material fixed assets. Thus, their grouping by industry (industry, agriculture, transport, etc.) has a purely statistical focus, making it possible to generate data on their value within a single type of economic activity.

By purpose, the material fixed assets of organizations in the real sector of the economy are divided into production and non-production (see Fig. 5) .

Rice. 5. Material fixed assets for their intended purpose in the production process

According to the method of influencing the objects of labor, it is customary to distinguish between the active and passive parts of the material basic production assets. The first category includes those funds that are directly involved in the production process and include such varieties as machines, machine tools, production lines, other equipment, computers and production tools. The role of the passive is to create and maintain the conditions for the implementation production process(these include, for example, buildings and structures for industrial purposes, transmission devices (water pipelines, gas pipelines, etc.) and land). Such detailing is necessary to identify reserves for increasing the efficiency of using fixed assets by optimizing their structure.

The classification of fixed assets by type is disclosed in paragraph 5 of PBU 6/01 “Accounting for fixed assets” and paragraph 3 of the Guidelines for accounting for fixed assets and completely duplicates the composition of tangible fixed assets presented in OKOF OK 013-94. At the same time, in order to characterize the state of working machines and equipment, fixtures and tools, in practice they are grouped according to their technical suitability: an object suitable for operation; unusable and subject to write-off; in need of a major overhaul.

Based on the provisions of Art. 130, 132 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, tangible fixed assets can be classified into movable and immovable property (see Fig. 6) .

According to the degree of use in the production process, material fixed assets are divided into those located:

Directly in operation;

In stock (reserve) - items of fixed assets acquired in accordance with the requirements of the regulatory legal acts of the Russian Federation to ensure the uninterrupted and safe functioning of production, intended to replace failed fixed assets (for example, the safety stock of generating equipment in the electric power industry, used to maintain uninterrupted operation of the power system in conditions of unforeseen peak loads);

In stage:

Completion (construction of new, inseparable from the object of fixed assets parts without causing damage to it);

Additional equipment (addition of an object of fixed assets with previously missing elements (parts, mechanisms, units), leading to the appearance of new properties and qualities in it (clause 2, article 257 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation));

Rice. 6. Division of material fixed assets into movable and immovable property

Reconstruction (reconstruction of fixed assets in connection with the improvement of the production process to expand capacity, increase the quantity and quality of products (clause 2, article 257 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation));

Modernization (improvement of the object, leading to a change in its technical economic indicators: purpose, scope, workload);

Partial liquidation (termination of recognition of an integral part (or several parts) of an object);

On conservation (the operation of which has been terminated for a certain period with the possibility of its renewal).

Another classification feature is the availability of rights to fixed assets, on the basis of which they are usually classified into:

Owned by an economic entity (including those leased) (Article 209 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation);

Being in economic jurisdiction (for state or municipal unitary enterprises (Article 294 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation)) or operational management (for institutions and state-owned enterprises (Article 296 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation));

Leased items of property, plant and equipment, i.e. in temporary possession and use or in temporary use, incl. received under a financial lease (leasing) agreement (Chapter 34 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation).

The correct classification of fixed assets is a guarantee not only of the organization's error-free filling out of the federal statistical observation 11 "Information on the availability and movement of fixed assets (funds) and other non-financial assets" and obtaining reliable results of the analysis of the effectiveness of their use, but also a factor influencing the outcome of tax disputes regarding the payment of income tax. In addition, the correct classification of objects determines the characteristic features of their accounting - the recognition process, the valuation methodology, the order of reflection in financial statements and other accounting aspects, the range of which is regulated by a number of regulatory legal acts in force on the territory of the Russian Federation.

Annex 1

Sources of formation of the fixed capital of the organization

The problem of term definition is the subject of scientific research by representatives of various terminological schools. The formation of the theory of the term was long and difficult, therefore, in the linguistic literature, the lack of a generally accepted definition of this concept has been repeatedly noted.

Today there is great amount term definitions. This phenomenon is explained by the fact that the term is an object of a number of sciences, and each science strives to highlight in it the features that are the most significant from its point of view.

Here are some of the definitions of the concept of "term", which are presented in Russian linguistics.

Term (limit, border, lat.) 1) In formal logic, a concept expressed by a word (philosophical). 2) A word that is the name of a strictly defined concept // a special word and expression adopted to refer to something in a particular environment, profession. According to Reformatsky, terminology, nomenclature and special phraseology were combined in these definitions, which should be differentiated.

A.A. Reformed referred to the terms "special words, limited by their special purpose; striving to be unambiguous as an exact expression of concepts and the name of things. R.A. Budagov follows Reformatsky and defines the term as "a word with a strictly defined meaning ... The term strives for unambiguity (monosemy)".

Terminology is usually defined as: 1) the science of terms; 2) part of the vocabulary of the language, covering special vocabulary; 3) a system for designating scientific and professional concepts any one area of ​​knowledge. The terminology of each science is a system that differs from the terminology of other sciences not only in the content of concepts expressed in terms, but also in purely linguistic features.

Highlighting the terminological sector, A.A. Reformatsky notes that “terminology is a closed vocabulary context, the boundaries of which are determined by a certain social organization reality. Unlike everyday vocabulary, terminology has a socially binding character. Although the terms of any scientific terminology are clearly opposed to common words, one should still be wary of the penetration into the terminology of the philistine meanings of words. But further in the same place we find: “The area of ​​terminology, on the one hand, is closed, on the other, it is in continuous interaction with everyday speech. Any ordinary unofficial word can become a term by being included in a special dictionary on the basis of exact correspondence with a certain socially organized thing. On the other hand, any term can return to everyday speech by losing its exact correspondence with the thing called.

The word "terminology" until recently denoted not only the totality of terms of any special field, but also the science of terms itself. Currently, the scientific discipline that deals with the study of these linguistic units is called terminology.

A special place among special languages ​​has always been occupied by the language of law. Its appearance is associated, first of all, with the great importance legal system generally.

In the legal encyclopedic dictionary, legal terms are called "verbal designations of state-legal concepts, with the help of which the content of the legal regulations of the state is expressed and fixed" . It is also noted that these terms should have the following features: unambiguity (accuracy), general availability, common use and stability. It is difficult to agree with this formulation, since often, due to the specifics of linguistic consciousness, native speakers cannot distinguish a legal term from a commonly used one. As a result, this leads to the fact that representations and concepts are distorted, which, in fact, is unacceptable for the language of law.

There are a number of works that explore legal terminology (D.I. Miloslavskaya, N.G. Mikhailovskaya, S.P. Khizhnyak, etc.).

Legal terminology refers to socio-political terminology. According to S.P. Khizhnyak, this terminology is heterogeneous, it can be distinguished "the terminology of law (law) and the terminology of jurisprudence (jurisprudence), such a division, in turn, is associated with various areas functioning of legal terminology: official business and scientific” .

Further, the author clarifies that the terminology of law is the terminology of law enforcement practice, and the terminology of jurisprudence is the terminology of legal doctrine (science of law). The main composition of the terms of jurisprudence and law is common, but their difference is that, according to Khizhnyak, the terminology of jurisprudence is more complicated than the terminology of law, since it uses terms that denote theoretical concepts that are not found in the texts of laws (for example, hypothesis, disposition etc.).

It should also be pointed out that Russian legal terminology arose in the 10th century precisely as the terminology of law and was enshrined in ancient legislative acts, and the terminology of jurisprudence arose only when the theoretical understanding of legal science began, namely in the 18th century. "Such a correlation between the terminology of law and the terminology of jurisprudence makes it even more difficult to determine the legal term and the nature of the terminology of various nominative units used in legal terminology."

In the texts of laws since ancient times, words were noted that also applied to common language, while some of them were used as terms, and others as connecting elements.

Lawyers define a legal term as follows: “A legal term is a word or phrase that is used in legislation, is a generalized name legal concept, which has an exact and definite meaning, and is distinguished by semantic unambiguity, functional stability.

However, in practice, the legal term does not have most of the properties listed above. But the main thing is that only one that is officially enshrined in a legislative act can be considered a legal term. In this case, the question arises: is it possible to consider nominative units that are not enshrined in law, but are used in scientific legal literature, as legal terms. The answer lies precisely in the distinction between legal terms and terms of law, as noted above, they have both certain similarities and some differences. The terminology of jurisprudence includes all terms of law, although there are more terms of jurisprudence. The terms of law are characterized by "formal and semantic variability", which "reflects the process of terminology". Part of the nominative units of jurisprudence is on the periphery of legal terminology and is one of the sources of replenishment of the terminology of law.

Since the object of research in the article is a legal term, we understand the term, following Khizhnyak, as a word correlated with a certain concept in the system of concepts of science, reflecting the phenomena of the superstructural order and functioning in the field of legislation, legal proceedings, etc., that is, in officially -business area.

As for terminology, following Khizhnyak, we believe that terminology is any word or phrase that acts in a nominative function, and also denotes key concept element legal norm (hypotheses, dispositions, sanctions).

The terminology of law is a specific system that is predetermined by the use of the word to designate the key elements of the rule of law, as well as the development of generic relations with other terms. It should also be noted that this system is characterized by the desire for unambiguous use, the absence of emotionally expressive and stylistic synonyms, the manifestation of the evaluation factor and the optional presence of definitions in terms, which is a characteristic phenomenon for legal terminology. Lawyers themselves explain the fact of the presence of undefined terms in this way: “To give a proper formula that defines a legal term, this can sometimes matter no less than even a serious technical discovery.”

At the end of the 20th century, interest in terminology, including legal terminology, noticeably increased. This interest is due, first of all, to a certain specificity of legal terminology and its insufficient knowledge.

DI. Miloslavskaya says that legal terminology has become one of the most important areas that is influenced by social changes in society: “many legal concepts that have developed in recent decades ( people's squad, comradely court) become obsolete, many acquire a new additional shade ( fund, tax), new concepts appear, most often foreign borrowings ( leasing, grant)» .

The author makes, in our opinion, a very significant conclusion that there is a long overdue need for streamlining, unification and clarification of legal terms and terminological combinations, especially those that: 1) do not differ from the commonly used meanings of words; 2) have a high frequency and social significance.

"The use of lexical units, mainly characteristic of certain functional varieties, in the diverse subsystems of the literary and, more broadly, the national language is inevitably associated with different realization of their semantic potential" . This phenomenon is fundamentally different from the phenomenon of polysemy of terms, which is widely observed in terminological spheres, since the differentiation of meanings in them is associated with a specific scientific and industrial area and is considered in the general course of lexical homonymy as a linguistic phenomenon.

According to Mikhailovskaya, compared with such terms, the range of vocabulary is of particular complexity and specificity, which, being used in the general literary language, also belongs to a subsystem that serves a separate practical area.

Based on the foregoing, the study of vocabulary characteristic of the legal sphere is of particular interest, since, according to Mikhailovskaya, it reveals a semantic and terminological “duality” of a lexical unit, which, according to Kogotkova’s definition, can be attributed to “interfunctional-style homonymy”. It is also important to note that the named property of legal vocabulary is specifically stipulated in practical advice lawyers, for example: “Often, not specially formed words are used as terms, but words and expressions that belong to the literary language, but have acquired professional meaning. This value, as a rule, does not coincide with that which exists in non-professional use. For example, words show, indication, episode, drive unit, detention, preventive measure and others have quite definite meanings in legal texts that differ from the meanings and use of these words in other areas.

Bibliography:

1. Budagov R.A. Introduction to the science of language. - M., 1958.

2. Big Legal Encyclopedic Dictionary / Ed. A.B.Barikhina. – M.: Knizhny Mir, 2004. – 720p.

3. Zubarev V.S., Krysin L.P., Statkus V.F. The language and style of the indictment. - M., 1976.

4. Miloslavskaya D.I. System description of legal terminology in modern Russian: Dis. ... cand. philol. Sciences. - M., 2000. - 164s.

5. Mikhailovskaya N.G. On the Formation and Functioning of Legal Vocabulary // Terminology and Culture of Speech. – M.: Nauka, 1981. – P.110-123.

6. Pigolkin A.S. The language of the law. - M., 1990.

7. Polyansky N.N. On the terminology of Soviet law. - M., 1938.

8. Reformatsky A.A. Introduction to linguistics. - M., 1947.

9.Reformatsky Thoughts on terminology // Modern problems of Russian terminology. - M.: Nauka, 1986. - S.163-198.

10. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language / Ed. D.N. Ushakov. - M .: LLC Publishing house "AST", 2004.

11. Khizhnyak S.P. Legal terminology: formation and composition. - Saratov: Saratov University Press, 1997. - 136p.

2.2 The concepts of fixed assets of the enterprise in the interpretation of various authors

Danilan A.A. considers that the fixed assets of an enterprise are means of labor that gradually wear out during use and therefore serve for a long time, participate in several production cycles in an unchanged natural form. They do not include those means of labor that, according to the current instructions, are classified as low-value and wearing items.

Bakaev A.S. writes that the composition of fixed assets reflects various material and material values ​​used as means of labor in kind for a long time both in the sphere of material production and in the non-productive sphere. Fixed assets include: buildings, structures, working and power machines and equipment, measuring and control instruments and devices, computers, vehicles, tools, production and household equipment and supplies, working, productive and breeding livestock, perennial plantations, on-farm roads and other related items.

Fixed assets also include: capital investments for radical improvement of land (drainage, irrigation and other reclamation works); capital investments in leased fixed assets; land, objects of nature management (water, subsoil and other Natural resources).

Kiryanov Z.V. gives the concept of fixed assets (funds). Fixed assets (funds) are labor instruments that repeatedly participate in the production process without changing their natural form, perform the same function over several production cycles and transfer their value to the created product in parts. The consumption of fixed assets occurs in the process of their gradual wear and tear.

He also subdivides fixed assets (funds) into production and non-production. Industrial fixed assets for agricultural purposes include industrial agricultural buildings, structures, transmission devices, agricultural machinery and equipment, working and productive livestock, capital expenditures for land improvement.

Production fixed assets for non-agricultural purposes include buildings, structures, non-transmitters, machinery and equipment for the construction of industrial and production facilities, trade and Catering.

Non-productive fixed assets include buildings, structures and equipment for housing, communal services and consumer services for the population, organizations of education, culture and art, health care, physical education and social security.

Larionov A.D. gives the concept of initial, residual and replacement cost of fixed assets. In accounting, the fixed assets of an enterprise are reflected at their original cost, that is, at the actual costs of their acquisition, construction, and manufacture. Changes in the initial cost of fixed assets are allowed only in cases of completion, additional equipment, reconstruction and partial liquidation. The residual value of fixed assets can be judged by the initial cost, based on the amount of depreciation accrued.

The replacement cost is understood as the cost of reproduction of objects in modern conditions. In accounting, this assessment is not reflected (except for objects subjected to revaluation), but it is important when drawing up an estimate of the costs of reproduction, overhaul.

Glushkov I.E. distinguishes between the following types of valuation of fixed assets: initial cost - full, that is, without deduction of depreciation, and residual, that is, minus depreciation; the replacement cost, respectively, is also full and residual. The initial cost is determined by the amount of funds actually spent on the acquisition, construction, including installation of equipment included in the construction estimate. Recovery is an assessment of fixed assets at modern prices, at the cost of reproduction at a given time. It allows you to compare the means of labor received at different times, to obtain accurate data on their size.

Volkov N.G. writes that the initial cost of an item of fixed assets depends on the nature of its acquisition or receipt and is formed in a different assessment:

When buying an object, it is determined by the actual costs of its acquisition, including cash paid to the seller, organizations for the implementation of work under a construction contract or other contracts; special organizations for information Services; remuneration of the intermediary organization through which the object of fixed assets was acquired;

· registration fees, duties and other similar payments made in connection with the assignment of rights to the object;

· customs duties and other payments;

non-refundable taxes paid in connection with the acquisition of objects;

other costs directly related to the acquisition of objects.

Upon receipt of an object as a contribution to the authorized capital, the initial cost of the fixed asset object is determined in the amount agreed by the founders of the organization.

The regulation establishes that the organization can change the initial cost of fixed assets in the event of work on completion, reconstruction, as well as in the event of their partial liquidation.

Talitskaya T.V. writes that the revaluation of fixed assets can be carried out in one of two ways - using indices of changes in the value of fixed assets developed by the State Statistics Committee of Russia, or by direct valuation of the value of fixed assets using documented market prices, and the company can evaluate itself or invite experts - appraisers .

As you know, the federal authorities prefer the method of direct assessment, since it is the most accurate, and allows you to correct inaccuracies that have accumulated as a result of the use of average group indices in the course of previous assessments. Direct evaluation must be documented or expert opinions independent appraisers. The degree of responsibility of the appraiser to the customer is largely determined by the contract concluded between them.

Pizengolts M.Z. writes that in the process production activities fixed assets Agriculture, they, while retaining their original material form, gradually wear out. To replace depreciated fixed assets, enterprises must accumulate necessary funds, that is, the amount of depreciation of fixed assets must be constantly reimbursed from the proceeds. This is ensured by accruing depreciation included in the cost of production.

Many organizations actively use fixed assets in their business activities. For such organizations, it is extremely important to choose the right method of depreciation, as this is directly related to the problem of timely write-off of a worn out or obsolete fixed asset. All fixed assets of the organization are divided into homogeneous groups of objects, united by common technological or other characteristics. Splitting should be guided by All-Russian classifier fixed assets.

In terms of the volume and nature of the repair work distinguish between current, medium and major repairs of fixed assets.

According to Babaev Yu.A. Current repairs are considered to be repairs carried out with a frequency of less than one year. Its main purpose is to keep the facility in working condition. With an average repair, a partial disassembly of the repaired unit and the restoration or replacement of part of the parts are performed. Overhaul of equipment and Vehicle this type of repair is considered, in which the complete disassembly of the unit is carried out, the repair of basic and body parts and assemblies with new and more modern ones, assembly, adjustment and testing of the unit. Capital repairs of buildings and structures - repairs in which worn-out structures are replaced or replaced with more durable and economical ones that improve the operational capabilities of the repaired facilities.

The average repair carried out with a frequency of more than one year is reflected in the accounting as a major one, and with a frequency of more than once a year as a current one.

Some economists (Kondrakov N.P., Glushkov I.E.) subdivide repairs into only two types - current and capital.

Baryshnikov N.P. writes about the costs of repairing fixed assets that, in accordance with the Regulations on the composition of costs for the production and sale of products included in the cost of products, depending on the accounting policy adopted by the organization, the costs of repairing fixed assets for production purposes may be included in production costs (circulation ) in one of the following ways:

by including actual costs in production costs;

By creating a repair fund (reserve);

· by assigning the actual costs of repairing fixed assets to the expense of future periods with subsequent even write-off.

The first method is used for small repairs and uniform costs during the reporting period.

The second method involves the formation of a repair fund (reserve), which is created monthly with the transfer of funds to account 96 "Reserves for future expenses" subaccount "Repair Fund". Then the actual costs of repairing fixed assets are written off against the created reserve.

The third method involves the allocation of actually incurred costs to deferred expenses. In this case, the costs incurred for the repair of fixed assets are collected on the account "Deferred expenses" sub-account "Repair Fund", which are further evenly written off to production costs or sales costs.

Kondrakov N.P. notes that it is advisable to use the third cost accounting option in those organizations of seasonal industries where the bulk of the costs of repairing fixed assets fall in the first months of the year, when the repair fund has not yet been created.

Kondrakov N.P. also notes that repairs of fixed assets can be carried out in an economic way, that is, by the organization itself, or by a contract method (by outside organizations).

Evaluation of work in an economic way is determined by the actual costs of auxiliary production (repair shops, repair shops), the cost of spare parts and other materials consumed during repairs, the cost of wages and social security contributions for workers involved in repairs.

The cost of contract work is determined by the amount of invoices issued by contractors and other organizations for payment for the work performed. In turn, the price for such services is determined by agreement of the parties, including on the basis of accepted building codes and prices.

Repair of fixed assets is recommended to be carried out in accordance with the plan, in monetary terms, based on the system of preventive maintenance developed by the organization, taking into account specifications fixed assets, their operating conditions and other reasons. TO scheduled repairs includes work on the systematic and timely protection of fixed assets from premature wear and tear and maintaining them in working order. Scheduled preventive maintenance extends the life of fixed assets and reduces equipment downtime. Unscheduled repairs are associated with unforeseen circumstances: an accident, sudden stops of mechanisms, etc. .

Every science has its own subject. Under the subject economic analysis refers to the economic processes of enterprises, their socio-economic efficiency and the final financial results of their activities, which are formed under the influence of objective and subjective factors, which are reflected through the system of economic information.

The subject of economic analysis determines the tasks facing it. Among the main author Grishchenko O.V. highlights:

· increasing the scientific and economic validity of business plans, business processes and standards in the process of their development;

· an objective and comprehensive study of the implementation of business plans, business processes and compliance with regulations;

determination of the effectiveness of the use of labor and material resources;

control over the implementation of the requirements of commercial calculation;

Identification and measurement of internal reserves at all stages of the production process;

Checking for optimality management decisions.

Characteristic features methods of economic analysis are:

· determination of a system of indicators that comprehensively characterize the economic activity of organizations;

Establishing the subordination of indicators with the allocation of aggregate productive factors and factors (primary and secondary) that affect them;

Identification of the form of the relationship between factors;

choice of techniques and methods for studying the relationship;

Quantitative measurement of the influence of factors on the aggregate indicator.

The set of techniques and methods that are used in the study of economic processes constitutes the methodology of economic analysis.

Fixed assets (often referred to in the economic literature and in practice as fixed assets) are one of the most important factors of production.

The analysis of fixed assets is carried out in several directions, the development of which in combination allows us to assess the structure, dynamics and efficiency of the use of fixed assets and long-term investments.

The main directions of the analysis of fixed assets:

· Analysis of the structure and dynamics of fixed assets;

· Analysis of the efficiency of the use of fixed assets;

· Cost-effectiveness analysis for the maintenance and operation of equipment;

· Analysis of the effectiveness of investments in fixed assets.

HELL. Sheremet notes that the structure, dynamics and return on assets of fixed assets are factors that affect the level of profitability and financial condition of the organization. Organizations care about how much own funds invested in fixed assets. In modern conditions, the organization's flexibility in relation to the use of labor resources is increasing, the role of credit in the formation of fixed assets is increasing. Fixed assets and long-term investments in fixed assets have a multifaceted and versatile impact on the financial performance of the enterprise. The determining factors for the choice of analytical problems are specific needs management, the content of managerial decisions.

2.3 Assessment of the composition, movement and condition of fixed assets

Fixed assets wear out during operation.

According to the current legislation, the fixed assets of an enterprise do not include:

items that serve less than one year, regardless of their value;

· fishing gear: trawls, nets, nets, nets and others, regardless of their cost and service life;

Replaceable equipment: attachments to fixed assets that are reusable in production and other devices caused by specific conditions for manufacturing products - molds and accessories to them, rolling rolls, air molds, shuttles, catalysts and other similar equipment, regardless of their cost;

special clothing, special footwear, as well as bedding, regardless of their cost and service life;

items intended for rental, regardless of their value;

· perennial plantings grown in nurseries as planting material.

Distinguish between physical and moral depreciation.

Physical deterioration is expressed in a negative change in the mechanical, physical, chemical and other properties of fixed assets in the form of wear, dilapidation, obsolescence and leads to a loss of consumer qualities and, ultimately, to a deterioration in economic performance.

Value physical wear and tear is determined through the coefficient of physical wear:

Or, if it is difficult to determine the performance of a fixed asset (building, structure), then according to the formula:

where, F, N - actual and standard values ​​of indicators;

V, P, T - respectively, the total volume of manufactured products, productivity and service life.

According to the wear coefficient, the absolute (in rubles) loss of value is calculated:

(23)

where, S P - the initial book value of the fixed asset.

Obsolescence, also called economic, is expressed in the loss of the value of existing fixed assets before the expiration of the physical aging period due to the appearance of the same, but the most progressive, i.e. cheaper and more productive fixed assets.

There are two forms of obsolescence.

Obsolescence of the first type leads to a decrease in cost due to the reduction in the cost of their reproduction in modern conditions. The relative value of the moral first type K IM1, and its absolute value is determined by the formulas:

(24)

(25)

where, S P and S B - the initial and replacement cost of fixed assets of the enterprise.

Obsolescence of the second type is caused by the appearance of new, more productive and economic machines. The use of an old machine may not be effective, and it is written off before the date of physical obsolescence. This wear is calculated by the formulas:

(26)

(27)

where, ST and NOV - old and new fixed assets, respectively;

P and T - performance and service life of the machine;

S P - the initial cost of the fixed asset.

Obsolescence losses can be reduced by upgrading or reconstructing aging fixed assets, as well as by their accelerated depreciation.

Data on the availability, depreciation and movement of fixed assets are the main source of information for assessing the production potential of the enterprise.

The assessment of the movement of fixed assets is carried out on the basis of coefficients that are analyzed in dynamics over a number of years. To assess the movement and condition of fixed assets, the following relative indicators are calculated:

1. The coefficient of renewal of fixed assets (K update):

K update = (28)

2. Term for renewal of fixed assets (T update):

T update = (29)

3. The coefficient of disposal of fixed assets (K in):

Group, then the results of the calculation will be diametrically opposed - the coefficient of uniformity of the development of trade turnover will be equal to 77.04. Chapter 3. Measures and suggestions for improvement financial condition OOO "Alliance" The analysis of OOO "Alliance" showed that the company is in a stable financial position, but has insufficient liquidity of assets. Despite...

Property in state and municipal ownership (6.3%). Grant receipts amounted to 40.9 billion rubles, or 13.0% of the total budget revenues of St. Petersburg. The budget of St. Petersburg also received income from entrepreneurial and other income-generating activities in the amount of 30.1 billion rubles, the share of which was 9.5%. St. Petersburg budget expenditures for 2009 ...

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF RUSSIA

FEDERAL STATE BUDGET EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

HIGHER EDUCATION

"VORONEZH STATE UNIVERSITY"

(FGBOU VO "VSU")

Faculty of Economics

Department of Accounting and Audit

COURSE WORK

Subject "Methods for valuation of assets and liabilities"

On the topic: "Methods for estimating the cost of materials"

Direction 38.03.01 "Economics"

day department

Coursework Supervisor

Candidate of Economics, Assoc. Lavrukhina T.A.

Coursework fulfilled

student of the 1st year of the 6th group Mukhardimov A.R.

Voronezh 2016

Introduction……………………………………………………………………….…3

Chapter 1. Theoretical approaches to the definition of the concept of "assessment"……..….3

1.1 Concept, essence, goals, principles of evaluation…………………………………9

1.2 Historical stages in the development of valuation: world experience…….8

1.3 Legal regulation valuation in Russia…9

Chapter 2. Approaches to understanding the initial and subsequent valuation of assets……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………78

2.1 Initial valuation (on the example of intangible assets)……….00

2.2 Subsequent valuation (on the example of intangible assets)………….00

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………00

List of used sources…………………………………………00

Introduction

In connection with the variety of business operations, it becomes necessary to develop generalizing indicators that would allow comparing and bringing together heterogeneous accounting objects into a single balance sheet, such as fixed assets, materials, goods, finished products, accounts payable, loans, etc.

This problem can be solved only by using monetary meters in the evaluation of property, liabilities and business transactions.

Cost measurement is carried out on the basis of two elements of the accounting method: estimates and costing. In our work, we will consider in more detail the first element of the method - evaluation. Actually, a deeper emphasis on this concept will form the main goal of our work: to find out what valuation is in accounting.

The relevance of my research is not lost at the present time, since valuation activities are important both for the development of market relations and for reforming the economy as a whole.

To achieve the goal, the following tasks were set:

1) consider the concept of "assessment", its essence, determine the basic principles and goals.

2) identify the trend in the development of valuation at different historical stages of development, using world experience as an example.

3) indicate with what basic legal sources valuation activity in the Russian Federation is regulated.

4) consider in detail the initial valuation on the example of intangible assets.

5) consider in detail the subsequent valuation of assets on the example of intangible assets.

When performing the work, various sources were used, including federal laws, computer legal reference systems, textbooks and other sources.

Chapter 1. Theoretical approaches to the definition of the concept of "assessment".

1.1 Concept, essence, goals, principles of evaluation.

Evaluation is a way of expressing in monetary terms the property of the enterprise and its sources. The reality and correctness of the assessment of the property of the enterprise and its sources have essential to build the entire accounting system. Property valuation is based on real costs expressed in monetary terms.

For the purposes of comparability, the valuation of property and its sources for reflection in the balance sheet should be carried out uniformly at all enterprises, which is achieved by observing the established provisions and rules for valuation.

Accounting is designed to generate information about the activities of the organization and its property status in various economic conditions, while any phenomena of economic life are subject to cost measurement. The assessment covers all economic processes occurring at the enterprise, namely: in the production process, the resulting products are evaluated; in the process of distribution - income from the sale of these products (goods, works, services); in the process of exchange - the cost of manufacturing inventories and the acquisition of labor instruments, the costs incurred from the sale, as well as arising obligations (accounts receivable and payable). Accordingly, the determination of the value of the assets of the organization (enterprise), both received from outside and created in the production process, and the value of the financial result generated from their use and sale depends on the accuracy of the accounting estimate, that is, with the help of the assessment, objects are registered and disposed of. from the property. Thus, the assessment covers the entire accounting process, from current accounting to reporting, and it is no coincidence that monetary valuation has become one of the most important elements of the accounting method.

Economic transformations in our country, formation and development market economy led to the reform of the accounting system as a whole. The reform process required a revision of the functional role and place of valuation in accounting, primarily due to the use of free prices in the country's economy, which made it necessary to legally allow new types of costs and methods for their calculation and provide enterprises with the opportunity to choose them. However, the assessment options proposed by regulatory documents still do not solve the problems of accounting practice and do not meet the requirements of users, which is confirmed by numerous facts of violation of the established assessment rules, unreasonable, from the point of view of economic feasibility, the choice of assessment option. It seems that, as an element of the accounting method, valuation requires a deeper study in terms of solving the problems facing accounting.

The purpose of valuation in accounting is to formulate the main tasks solved with the help of the first one. The purpose of the assessment is formulated as follows:
a) the full and correct name of the object of assessment;
b) the type of assets being evaluated;
c) the type of property rights being assessed;
d) date of assessment.
Therefore, the choice of an adequate assessment and the avoidance of errors in the assessment of the assets and liabilities of the enterprise depend on the correctness of the goal set.

Let's try to consider in more detail the assessment as an element of the accounting method.

IN different sources this element of accounting method is defined in different ways. Some define valuation as a way of expressing economic transactions in terms of money, others - as a way of solving the costs of living and embodied labor invested in monetary unit. certain types means and processes. Price as a monetary expression of value is the basic category in the valuation of assets and business transactions. Any price consists of the following elements:

1) cost of sales;

2) overhead costs (administrative, marketing, etc.);

3) profits; taxes; trade margins (discounts).

The basis for the formation of the price of the manufacturer of products is the cost of production. Determining the cost is the prerogative of the managerial image. Wholesale, retail, weighted average, estimated, accounting and other prices are the basis for the assessment of economic assets. The most common are wholesale and retail prices. Wholesale prices are the prices at which an enterprise sells its products to other enterprises, marketing or trading firms. The wholesale price of an enterprise includes: cost of sales, overheads, profits and taxes. Retail prices are the prices at which goods are sold to consumers. They include the wholesale price of the enterprise and trade margin(discount) for the purpose of spending.

The theory of accounting sets the basic requirements for the assessment, ensuring the correct reflection of accounting objects and the reliability of the assessment. These requirements include: reality (adequacy), unity and purposefulness of the assessment.
The reality (adequacy) of the assessment ensures the objective correspondence of the monetary expression of accounting objects to their actual value, the reflection in the monetary meter of the actual value of economic assets and operations. The adequacy of the assessment requires an accurate calculation of the actual cost of all accounting objects through inventory and revaluation.
The unity of the assessment ensures the uniformity and immutability of the assessment for a long time and for all business entities (enterprises, organizations, institutions). Unity of assessment is achieved by establishing mandatory provisions (standards), instructions, accounting and calculation rules.
The valuation system used in accounting has a multifunctional character. Evaluation in accounting is necessary in the course of business activities: upon receipt and disposal of assets, upon the emergence of rights and obligations, upon the implementation of such operations as the sale and purchase, rental of property, pledge, insurance, investment, revaluation of assets, upon creation, merger, liquidation enterprises, in the exercise of the right of inheritance, the execution of a court decision, etc. This circumstance explains the existence of various monetary valuations: economic, legal, expert, statistical, insurance (actuarial).

1.2 Historical stages in the development of valuation: world experience

Evaluation of accounting objects is important for obtaining objective information about the economic and financial situation of the organization. When deciding on the methods of assessment in modern conditions, one should be aware of how these issues were resolved earlier. In this paragraph, we will consider the historical aspects of valuation in accounting at the level of world experience. Let us present a retrospective of this issue, starting from the 13th century in various countries - Italy, France, Great Britain, Germany, Holland, the USA, etc., and also consider different points of view on evaluation issues.

For right decision issues of assessment of accounting objects, it is important to make an excursion into the history of this problem.

Initially, on early stages development of commodity production, with the development public division labor, there was a need to evaluate the commodities that were exchanged among themselves: the commodity expressed its value in the opposing commodity. Then, as it develops social production the first forms of "money" appeared: among hunters - furs, among farmers - grain, among pastoral tribes - cattle, etc., but they did not have universality. For example, in Egypt it was grain. “Coins or a single equivalent in Egypt did not know. Therefore, after compiling the inventory, the harvested grain was recalculated into a conditional yield corresponding to the harvest from the land at the highest yield rate, which made it possible to make the data of different farms comparable and consolidate data throughout the country.

The appearance of money in the form of coins facilitated the exchange of goods and was a major step in the evolution of exchange operations, as well as in the development of accounting, in particular, valuation. “Money acted first as an independent object of accounting, then as a means of settlement (all accounts were kept in money) and, finally, as a measure of value; they began to measure the entire inventory. Money, acting as a measure of value, measures the value of commodities. "The value of a thing, expressed in money, is its price." Previously, money was taken into account by metal and weight, then by types of coins, currently a legally fixed monetary unit is used, with which the amount of money and the price of goods are measured.

Monetary valuation made it possible to generalize the heterogeneous facts of economic life, group accounting objects and operations, and obtain system information. There was a transition from natural accounting to cost accounting. But right up to the thirteenth century, money remained the same commodity as products and tools of labor; not all objects of accounting were subjected to cost measurement. The development of accounting in the Middle Ages in Western Europe happened in the monasteries, because the power of the church at that time was growing and the monasteries became the center of education. In the Middle Ages, fair prices are mentioned for the first time, the main ideologist of which was the philosopher Thomas Aquinas (XIII century). “A fair price is the cost plus a markup that provides a standard minimum life for the seller. If the seller overestimates the fair price, he profits; if he underestimates, he becomes poorer.

The appearance of monetary value served as the basis for the emergence of double entry. The first step was that some business transactions themselves were reflected twice: when selling goods, they were written off in kind, and the money came. Then the goods themselves began to reflect twice: in kind and in monetary terms.

However, according to Sokolov Ya.V. and Sokolov V.Ya. double bookkeeping could not have appeared before the 13th century. There are many facts about this:

- money until that time was not widely distributed;

- of all the functions of money, the function of a means of payment prevailed;

- for many centuries, not quantitative, but qualitative ideas prevailed in the psychology of people.

The introduction of a single monetary meter was the biggest revolution, because the reduction of many items and no less many currencies to a single meter led to much more conventions in economic information than it was before. But this conventionality created an opportunity for: a) designing a system of accounts and b) measuring and evaluating the entire set of values, rights and obligations included in the concept of the subject of accounting.

The founder of the double entry, the Renaissance scholar Luca Pacioli, mentions the reflection in the accounting of goods at the current selling maximum price: “... and you will set regular prices for all things. It is better to assign the latter higher than lower, for example, if it seems to you that a thing costs 10, then say 14, so that you can profit better. This approach led to an overestimation of capital and a decrease in profits. At the same time, L. Pacioli recommended valuation at cost (actual cost) in relation to the exchange of goods: “Having made an entry, you must express the exchange in money, i.e. how to assume the purchase and sale in cash, and, depending on what, in your opinion, the value of the product, take such a price as a basis. Luca Pacioli formulated the rules for checking the reliability of settlements with debtors: "... No one can be considered a debtor (debtor) without his knowledge, even if it turned out to be appropriate ...".

Thus, in the Middle Ages in Italy, two types of valuations were predominantly widespread: at the acquisition price (historical) and at the selling (market) price. At the same time in Germany long years only conjuncture (market) valuation was used.

In France in the 19th century, during the period of development of industry and the formation of industrial accounting, the idea of ​​choosing and justifying the assessment was hotly debated.

In 1860, Guilbaud proposed a permanent account of the sale of goods, which was called a permanent inventory. By this concept, he understood the constant historical evaluation of accounting objects.

Advocates of current price valuation were J. B. Say, Duboc, Wulan, Bullo. The cost estimate was defended by Lavelle, Lefebvre, Perrault. Some authors have tried to defend both assessments at once. So, Lamy spoke out in favor of valuing items at cost, if they did not depreciate and did not wear out, and recommended resorting to current assessment if the items lost their value.

In accounting, materials are accounted for at actual prices, and written off at current prices. Kine, Guillebaud, and others saw this as a serious shortcoming, since the commensurability of the assessment for debit and credit of the same account was not respected. Courcelle-Senel, on the other hand, considered this an advantage, because. this account made it possible to clearly distinguish between production profit and market profit.

At the same time, the problems of evaluation research were dealt with by

German scientists. The balance literature for the first 40-50 years dealt with

questions of evaluation.

The father of German balance science, I.F. Sher (1846-1914), considered assessment to be the main point in the reality of balance. Based on the principle of conservatism, he proposed an assessment based on minimum prices: the lowest of the assessments for the current date (either the cost price or the sale price) is taken for accounting. But this led to the formation of hidden reserves and, as Sher himself admitted, turns into a falsification.

E. Schmalenbach (1873-1955) proposed the valuation of fixed assets at the purchase price, materials and finished products- at the lowest price.

At a time when accounting was being reformed in Soviet Russia, in the United States and English-speaking countries, the question of the nature of the Capital account by the American William Andrew Paton and the Englishman Francis Pixley and their followers divided accounting researchers into personalists and institutionalists. Personalists argued that the Capital account reflects the accounts payable of the enterprise to its owner. The institutionalists, however, did not make such an identification and believed that debts should not be confused with capital.

Thus, the study of the historical development of the assessment made it possible to identify its following stages of development (Table 1.1)

Continuation of table 1.1

Tab. 1.1 Historical stages in the development of assessment

The assessment example shows that behind each methodological device there are interests of certain groups. Personalists expressed the interests of suppliers, creditors, shareholders. They were worried not about how much the administration spends, but about how much the property of this enterprise really costs today, they demanded a revaluation. The institutionalists defended the interests of the owner. They argued that the balance sheet serves the internal goals of enterprise management, the administration of the enterprise should know what the funds reflected in the balance sheet cost the enterprise and have a correctly defined, valid result of its economic activity.

Nevertheless, disputes about the priority of one or another method of assessing the objects of accounting supervision, which began almost from the very beginnings of accounting, are ongoing to this day.

1.3 Regulation of valuation in Russia

According to Art. 1 No. 135-FZ "On valuation activities in the Russian Federation", "Evaluation activities are carried out in accordance with international treaties of the Russian Federation, this federal law, as well as other federal laws and other regulatory legal acts of the Russian Federation governing relations arising in the course of valuation activities.

Article 71 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation defines the subjects of jurisdiction of the Russian Federation and subjects that are jointly administered by the Russian Federation and its subjects. Issues to be resolved exclusively at the federal level include: the adoption and amendment of the Constitution and federal laws; federal structure and territory; protection of human and civil rights and freedoms; citizenship in the Russian Federation, etc. The RF and its subjects are in charge of such issues as the delimitation of state property; nature management; security environment and ensuring environmental safety; specially protected natural areas; protection of historical and cultural monuments. Outside the jurisdiction of the Russian Federation and its powers in subjects joint management The Russian Federation and the subjects of the Russian Federation the subjects of the Russian Federation have the full power of state power.

Along with federal and local legislation, the system state regulation appraisal activity includes relevant by-laws. Often there is a need to know not only the rules and regulations in force throughout the Russian Federation, but also the specific rates of local taxes, or the amount of the registration fee for registering real estate, or the amount of the fee for registering as an entrepreneur.

At the federal level, there are two methodological documents state standards Russian Federation: " one system property valuation" (ESOY); "Basic provisions. Terms and Definitions".

The Unified Property Valuation System (USSI) operates in accordance with economic conditions developing market relations and management structure in the Russian Federation based on current legislation, rules and regulations state system standardization.

primary goal normative documents The USEI is to protect the interests of the state and the rights of consumers while granting independence and initiative to organizations, enterprises and specialists involved in valuation activities.

The provisions of the main regulatory documents of the USEI can be used in the development of standards for industries, societies and enterprises.

The provisions of the USEI standards are subject to application by all companies located on the territory of the Russian Federation government bodies management, business entities that are directly and (or) indirectly related to the valuation of property.

Along with this Federal Law, these standards create a single regulatory framework for the development of valuation activities in Russia. A unified terminology, rules, procedures and traditions of interaction between customers and appraisers, unified approaches to the performance of valuation work and the presentation of their results are being formed. However, as always with the emergence of a system of normative documents prepared at different times and by different authors, the problem of their consistency arises. In particular, the definitions of the main concepts in this Law and in the Terminology Standard (GOST R 51.195.0.02-98) are not always consistent with each other. In cases of divergence, priority should be given to the Law.

According to Russian GOST:

"Property appraisal - determination of the value of property in accordance with the goal, the appraisal procedure and the requirements of the appraiser's ethics."

For example, the Moscow Law gives more detailed formulations:

"The appraisal activity is understood as a set of relations of a legal, economic, organizational, technical and other nature to establish a market or other value (pledge, liquidation and other) in relation to the objects of assessment. The concept of appraisal activity includes relations that develop in the process of assessing, training , licensing, exercising control over the activities of appraisers and applying liability measures.

Appraisal - the process of determining the quality, value or usefulness of the appraisal object, which can be implemented in the form of forming a professional appraiser's opinion on the value of the appraisal object without providing calculations and justifications; analysis or review of real estate markets without a conclusion about the value of a particular object of assessment in monetary terms; calculation of the value of the appraisal object with the determination of its value in monetary terms with an appropriate study of the real estate market situation, giving justifications for the applied methods and rules.

In the conditions of market relations, such issues relating to fixed assets as the technical level, quality, and reliability of products come to the fore, which entirely depends on the qualitative state of technology and its effective use. The improvement of the technical qualities of the means of labor and the equipping of workers with them provide the bulk of the increase in the efficiency of the production process. Thus, the analysis of the effectiveness of the use of fixed assets is of particular relevance and great practical importance.

A more complete use of fixed assets leads to a decrease in the need for commissioning new production capacity when changing the volume of production, and, consequently, to a better use of the profits of the enterprise.

Improving the use of fixed assets also means accelerating their turnover, which to a large extent contributes to solving the problem of reducing the gap in terms of physical and obsolescence, accelerating the pace of renewal of fixed assets.

Finally, effective evaluation and the management of fixed assets is closely connected with improving the quality of products, because in conditions market competition High-quality products are sold faster and are in demand.

Thus, the fixed assets the most important factor any production. Their condition and effective use directly affect the final results of the economic activity of the organization. Rational use fixed assets and production capacities of the organization contributes to the improvement of technical and economic indicators of production, including an increase in output, a decrease in its cost and labor intensity of manufacture.

Determination of the economic content of the concept of "Fixed assets" is an important step in the analysis, because allows you to form an objective value of the specified indicator, therefore, it is correct to identify the amount of depreciation in the cost of products, works, services that affects financial results. After analyzing foreign and domestic scientific literature, several definitions can be distinguished, they are presented in detail in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 - Approaches to determining the essence of the concepts "Fixed assets"

To compare and analyze the approaches given in the information table 1.1 to the essence of the concept of fixed assets, we will compile an analytical table 1.2.

Table 1.2 - Analysis of the essence of the concepts "Fixed assets"

Thus, based on the analysis, it was revealed that most authors define fixed assets as a set of labor instruments. This opinion is shared by such authors as Yu.F. Gurkin, V.N. Shelenov, V.L. Kurakov, G.V. Savitskaya, M.K. Zhudko, L.A. Loban, V.T. Pyko, S.P. Sergeev, E.S. Lebedev.

Consideration of fixed assets as assets of the organization, having a material form and participating in the production process, is also very common. This approach is observed in the Decree of the Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Belarus, as well as the Russian Federation, by the author E.S. Hendrickson.

In our opinion, the most complete definition fixed assets is presented in the Decree of the Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Belarus, according to which fixed assets- these are physical assets intended for use in the activities of the organization for a period of more than 12 months, not involving the disposal of assets within 12 months from the date of acquisition and the initial cost of assets can be reliably determined.